some translated works of Girolamo Cardano's

from the original Latin, all done by me.

Girolamo Cardano. Stipple engraving by R. Cooper.

DIALOGUE OF HIERONYMUS CARDAN AND FACIUS CARDAN, HIS OWN FATHER

Hieronymus:
Oh, how unjust is the fate of mortals! I have been robbed of a gift as useful as it is honorable: the ability to practice medicine and to publish books. Forced by circumstances, at my age, to come to Rome to live among doctors, whose ancestors even Galen himself could not withstand, I have no income and have been left alone by my descendants. I am afflicted with poor health and can barely rely on the faithfulness of my domestic staff and friends. I am as good as blind. Who will welcome me with open arms, like they did Oedipus when he was wandering around with nothing but rags on his back? But he is much less miserable than I am, who has left behind many offspring, kings, and who has suffered only the misfortunes that he brought upon himself and not those inflicted upon him by others or by chance. Who among mortals is more miserable than I? What shall I do?

Facius:
Why do you wail foolishly?

Hieronymus:
Alas, because I am also tormented by demons.

Facius:
I am not a demon, but a friend, and the best friend of your friends. Your father was once, and still is, poor (as you know), having long ago shed his corporeal shell. I am Fazio Cardan.

Hieronymus:
Oh, how well it goes with you! Have pity on your only son and help him if you can, either with your advice or with your presence, for the time is opportune.

Facius:
You are not as miserable as you claim; you are making yourself miserable.

Hieronymus:
I will not recount all the things that I believed to be private to myself (for, just as in the past, I see you only in my dreams), but the greatest misfortune is that I cannot stay here or leave safely, honestly, or conveniently.

Facius:
You remembered that dream at an opportune time, for you have just noticed that the moon has reached its zenith. Yesterday, as you read in Blessed’s book, the lunar intellect occupies the ultimate rank among all the completely separate substances, having retreated the farthest from the first substance (although it knows itself perfectly), yet it understands itself less clearly and obtusely than it understands others or itself through others.

However, since our intellect departs further from the First than the lunar, it does not understand itself by itself, but by other things, while it is recognizing those things. Therefore, it is even less able to understand others, since it cannot understand itself by itself or through others. It cannot understand them by themselves either, as it is unable to grasp the material beings completely separate from matter. Therefore, it only understands them through analogy, proportion, or similarity, and that too only in common aspects, such as being entities, substances, or acts, or as they are negated, that is, as being devoid of matter and incapable of being perceived by the senses.

Therefore, such things are known, for example, by deduction from the senses and by imagining them. For those things that adhere closely to a place (such as the body and its actions in animals) are precisely known by the senses, but those things that adhere to bodies in divine intellects are not known by their magnitude (nor possibly by motion) and will never be known in the future. How much less will the substances of the orbs be understood?

Therefore, since they are neither understood by themselves, since they are separated, nor through their bodies, which cannot be known by our intellect because of their lack of magnitude and substance, it is necessary for our intellect to understand them only through some similarity and through common things or things that they lack. However, the nature of our intellect itself, which can only understand itself through other things (like the lunar intellect), is such that it is left to understand them only through some similarity and through common things or things that they lack. But the lunar intellect can understand itself on its own. And because it is connected to others like itself at first, it understands them less than itself (although the closer they are to the first, the more intelligently they are related to us). But that which the lunar intellect understands about them, though less in comparison to what is understood, and more obscure, and what the lunar intellect understands absolutely, more clearly and perfectly in comparison to itself: simply, however, what the lunar intellect understands about other intellects is greater, nobler, clearer, and more perfect than what it understands about itself.

Just as a guest at a banquet eats more and better than if he were to eat everything at home: but he cannot eat everything that is in the banquet. He can eat everything he has at home. Did you not read all this clearly except as an example? Yes, indeed. Therefore, this is the day before the Nones of April in the year 1574, which should be considered your first and almost a birthday. You see how you have ascended from the individual to the supreme in the lunar sphere. Therefore, rejoice that you have obtained the interpretation of the dream, and that the time has come.

Hieronymus:
About what should I rejoice?

Facius:
Make it so that you understand what a special gift God has rewarded you with. For it is thus: What could be so hard or bitter to endure, or what could come in the future that you would not only bear willingly but gladly, seeing how much care was taken for it? And when many other things also bear witness to this, even that dream which you call fateful, although it is so dire and dreadful. Of letters fallen to the ground, one stood upright by the feet of the desk, while the other was covered in dust while it was being written, so that it could not be hidden naturally or even written. That long thunderstorm approaching the house. And at the end of the third day when you were detained, there was a loud noise in the hallway, first in the prison, and then immediately in the window it illuminated. Soon, the creaking sound of clattering iron shook, with Rudolf Silvestrius, the physician, present at these last two events.

Hieronymus:
All these things are true, but what good are they? In fact, they cause me great anxiety, and, as the poet says, "Your fierce words do not frighten me, Jupiter, but your punishments do." For this is the third thing that troubles me more than the loss of the ability to make a profit or publish books, namely, the day I was detained (which never happened before). At various times in the same place, I fell into two empty marketplaces, where there were so many ropes, dogs, and shouts that, although I was both ignorant and strong, I admired and feared them, and even heard the blows that struck me unwillingly. The other thing was what I recited last. So shaken by these two things, I have always feared being detained by them, and the first time, as now, I lay bound in the market like one awaiting death, and openly gave other penalties. Therefore, to return to the matter at hand, what bothers me is that I have never been able to find a likely cause for these prodigies, nor have I heard anyone who could explain it to me. For I have consulted many, hoping that if anyone could come up with a solution, I would be relieved of this anxious care. Although I was not ignorant that this account would be shameful to me, since I would either be thought a boaster or be considered light and superstitious, the magnitude of the danger, the fear of greater dangers, and the multitude of troubles that beset me caused me to put everything aside for the sake of my safety and that of mine. Therefore, if you have anything, Father, explain it to me in this great sorrow, for you have saved your son. For with God's help, even if I encounter many and great difficulties, I will be able to overcome them. But to make it easier for you to do this, know that such prodigies often happen to us in two ways: some as warnings of future events, others as reminders of imminent dangers, and they show us the way to escape. Therefore, I think it is better to interpret them in this way, since if I were completely overthrown, it would not be because I was too secretive about this, partly because of my own ignorance and partly because of the rare or malicious advice of others.

Please speak freely, but I would like to remind you of two things: first, that those who think nothing greater can happen to them than what they already believe are not thinking big enough, for they believe that these things that they do not think can happen later are empty trifles. But then you will know that they are true and of great significance, and that all those dreams and shadows are real. This is also made clearer when I recall the past in the light of day. Therefore, why do you torture yourself, as if you were suffering? Do you not have the easy task of having wax or stone figures with which children like to play? Do you lack these things? For what stable, great, or long-lasting thing can you have in this life, even simply, much less when compared to others? Therefore, you will join the unhappy crowd of those who wander aimlessly, who suffer in vain, who have so many labors and cares that are useless and of no use for happiness. What is there in this world that is stable, safe, long-lasting, and that time does not wear away? What is there that the more you progress, the better it becomes? Wealth grows by itself, but in old age it brings pleasure to others, and to you, who cannot enjoy it, it brings sorrow. So, what is the first thing in which you rightly torment yourself? The second is that I will explain the whole story at once, and show the end of each, and the reasons for the worthy souls, without which we cannot speak correctly and perfectly about the way of proceeding or the interpretation of the future, nor can we be in agreement, without which all help will be in vain.

Therefore, let us begin with wealth: how many cities were stripped of it without fault in the past and now, in all wars? In our time, in Pannonia and Cyprus, and remember Meliboeus in Virgil. After seeing several of my kingdoms, will I marvel at the impious soldiers who have these well-cultivated fields? See the discord; citizens have led the miserable ones. But, you have lost nothing due to any fault, and all these things are of no importance. I am not complaining about what has been taken away, but that there is no provision for expenses and the possibility of repairing what has been taken away.

Facius:
If your sons are good, it will be enough: but if they are inept, not many more than you yourself could suffice for that time.

Hieronymus:
I set aside this concern, but my honor pains me, and the fact that I am prohibited from publishing books. What am I to do when I see so many inferior to myself running off with the prize?

Facius:
Do you think you are dying? Or do you hope that after you die there will be no lack of either unskilled or learned men to carry on your work?

Hieronymus:
I don’t know.

Facius:
Why, then, do you not calculate whether you have gained or lost by this bargain? For the nail holds that which is last of all the wise: Solon used to say that the life of man extends to seventy years; for at that age Socrates and Thales died, and Hippias alone is said to have exceeded it, either that he might live more miserably or that he might console himself for so many miseries as he had endured in his old age. For he died both deprived of all his property and, besides, in exile and condemned to death. All the others died before—Aristotle, Galen, Hesiod, or Avicenna, Theophrastus, Pythagoras, Virgil, Horace. Life is short, but it is long enough if it is well-spent. Do not prescribe for yourself any greater number of years than the stars have allotted to you. The hand cannot promise: nor can physiognomy, nor can the manner of living.

As for injuries, if they happen by chance, do not be vexed, for you would regard them as having come from the gods; but when they are inflicted by men, as if the gods could not restrain them, or as if disease did not produce them—which has either taken something away from you or rendered you useless—then you should be vexed. The Cyrenaics used to say that pleasure and pain are both alike in the soul and in the body, which is true; but pleasure is greater in the body, and sorrow in the soul, because the mind is accustomed to extend itself infinitely and to expand beyond its own limits. And whatever fears may present themselves, the memory of past things will overcome them and will augment the sadness to an immense degree. He grieves at the shortness of his own life and fashions not only the lives but also the deeds and the decrees of others into immortality. He proposes injuries, insults, suspicions; he forgets favors, benefits, proofs of love; he makes an elephant out of a fly, as they say.

Therefore, this is not a proper evil. It is a great thing if, when you lose all these things by death or disease, you do not also lose your peace of mind; nor, however, would you prefer to be dead rather than to be in this state. You say (so that nothing may be lacking) that that condition would be a common one? Why, then, do you not prefer that? Why do you complain that you live? Would you prefer to live and not to suffer, or would you not complain justly about those who are dead? Do you wish, then, to complain more unjustly now that you are alive?

Therefore, return to the concept of Palingenesis, and say this: Three and a half years have already passed since what I had hoped for as the end of my common life. What has passed is safe; what is expected is not in despair nor can it be. Three descendants remain, many friends and powerful allies, a great name, knowledge of many things; 131 published books, 121 to be published, secrets more than four times the patrimony you were born with. What fools count among their misfortunes, namely having lived 72 years, I count among my chief gifts, for if you have endured adversity, you have already overcome it; if you have already possessed good things, they are safe and enjoyable in memory. But what is most important and what you should trust in remains: Providence, an unchanging order, an eye comprehending all things. Kingdoms will fall more easily than that Wisdom may be deceived, and Love does not wish for the best or lack a mode of satisfying just prayers.

There remain three things (for the rest belongs to God, for it is too much for them to know what He knows): an increase of your inheritance, the duty of teaching, and the publication of books. But concerning the inheritance, it is more important that your children learn to gain than that you yourself gain; that they wish to preserve it, rather than that you increase it. The duty of teaching belongs partly to the publication of books for the sake of glory, partly for the sake of exercising one's faculties. Therefore, when both ends can be attained with less effort, you do not need both. If you can accomplish only one, many other things will take its place; and both will impede what might be better. Concerning the glory of books, let us say what Zeno said: "I sailed with a fair wind when I suffered shipwreck." All would have been lost if any part had not been devoutly written; some were so carelessly composed and were full of errors and faults.

What about your children? Did you not lose them through negligence and indulgence? Are they not now safe? Formerly, a certain destruction threatened them. You would have wished for a life still like that if those things had not happened to you; there could have been nothing better for you.

Hieronymus:
Cares wear people out: it could happen that I suddenly fall due to those I have taken on.

Facius:
What is worse from being detained until now? You have never been sick: you see without any obvious weakness that you are not suffering from weakness of the stomach or skull, or difficulty urinating, or working while sleepless, nor do you have any swelling or hardness in your abdomen.

Hieronymus:
I am afraid that this confinement becomes a reward for abstinence: is it not a perpetual sentence on my life?

Facius:
There were three kings who were particularly burdened by worries: Mithridates, who was defeated several times; Maffiniffa, who saw the dangers of being a king before experiencing kingship himself in his youth; and Iotarus, who was first suspected, then deprived of his kingdom and finally reduced to servitude. Maffiniffa lived to be one percent of a year old; Mithridates could not find a way to die; and it was not easy to count the years of Iotarus. There are no less striking examples among women: Terentia saw the divorce of Cicero, the death of her only daughter, and the proscription of her son. However, she lived to see the next century. Pomponia Græcina persevered in mourning for forty years after the death of her daughter Julia Drusilla, and even though she was accused heavily, she reached old age. I think the reason for this is that someone who does not succumb to sorrow gains more benefit from the contempt of dishonest pleasures than from the losses of sadness, especially since fear of one's own death drives a man away from any sound advice, while contempt can alleviate it, and security can be obtained instead of revenge on others.

So, having understood these things, I come to their interpretation. The first is certainly the worst, but it could have appeared accidental. For example, if you were to add an image to a seal: a drugstore was on the way, what use would a cow be to a man? If it had been a bull, it would have been more suitable. Nothing in common, everything accidental and with reason and frequency. And do not fear that the bull in your horoscope may come true. For the second detention cannot be attributed to the cow so that the third could follow. No chains, no injury, no torture, no death intended. If it could signify death, it was only of vices, so that you may be compelled to cast them off as if tied to them in the future. But this should be considered more as a fable or an ancient supplication.

Another thing has more weight: the frequent blows in the trial to be held at Bologna. As for the windows in Rome, it was shown by the squeaky sound of the closed ones, which was unusual, that they should not be opened at all. But it was predicted that he would leave that city and choose a new homeland, which is glorious and indicates a future journey. There is no danger from the second detention, for this prodigy occurred not at the beginning, but after the release or shortly before. The outcome also corresponds to the escape of birds from a closed window. Therefore, they will be revealed by their works, and they will be corrected and much better than if these things had not happened; otherwise, they would fall.

Hieronymus:
Therefore, they should be hated not for what they have harmed but for what they wanted to harm.

Facius:
Therefore, those who are so wicked that they can attain happiness only by not living peacefully and not hoping for anything better than death, are to be held in hatred not for what they have done, but for what they have wanted to do. But for you, there are many arguments for pleasure. However, why are you angry? It is a false assumption that some men have been good: you are mistaken, all of them—Aristides, Socrates, Plato, Nascia, and Cato the Younger—were punished by a certain stimulus (among many things that come to mind: anger, envy, ambition, avarice, and burning passions) of virtue; the rest were good only by foolishness and incompetence; the truly good are just, virtuous, and owed everything to divine grace alone, which they owe far more than anything that might be owed to themselves. But for you, since you have already laid almost all the foundations that lead to success, care must be taken in comparing money, and in the education of your descendants. From these, a third will arise spontaneously. Indeed, many occasions will owe the highest joy.

Hieronymus:
Thank you, Father, who, despite my very heavy afflictions, taught me many aids: the memory of my own death, the image of rebirth, a transition to the opposite or stripping away, and bodily torture.

Facius:
So, live well.

Hieronymus:
Are you leaving so soon?

Facius:
I will return to you someday.

Hieronymus:
That will be most pleasing to me. But where is my son?

Facius:
He is here, present. He is well, and farewell to you.

END

A Translation of The Introductory Writings to Cardano's Opera Omnia Volume 1

Introduction

As the title suggests, this is a translation of the introductory writings contained in the first volume of Gerolamo Cardano's Opera Omnia. These writings include: Frontespizio, Lettera Dedicatoria, Praefatio, Vita Cardani per Gabrielem Naudaeum, Testimonia, Elenchus Generalis, Index Librorum Tomi Primi, and Previlege du Roy. However, only Frontespizio, Lettera Dedicatoria, Praefatio, Vita Cardani per Gabrielem Naudaeum, Testimonia, and Previlege du Roy were translated.

The sections Elenchus Generalis (General List) and Index Librorum Tomi Primi (Index of the Books of the First Volume) were omitted as they are merely lists: the former compiles all the works within the ten volumes of the Opera, and the latter catalogs the contents of the first volume. Both are of little use to the modern reader.

The first volume of Cardano's Opera Omnia is noteworthy as it uniquely contains a preface, an introductory letter by the editors, a biography, and a collection of testimonies from learned men regarding Cardano. This volume is a treasure trove of authoritative material about Cardano. Having studied his life and works assiduously since February 2022, I was delighted to discover insights within these writings that were previously unknown to me, particularly in the biography by Gabriel Naudé—the father of library science.

To elaborate on each of the listed sections:

1. Frontespizio (Frontispiece): This is the title page of the Opera Omnia, displaying the name of the work, the editor/author, publishers, and an illustration of Cardano. Additionally, it depicts two men beside an astronomical ring. One man holds a compass and a globe, while the other holds a compass and a wax tablet drawing a circle.

2. Lettera Dedicatoria (Dedicatory Letter): Written by the publishers Jean Antoine and Marc-Antoine Ravaud, this letter is addressed to Guillaume de Lamoignon, prince of the French senate. It extols Cardano and underscores the significance of this work to France.

3. Praefatio (Preface): The preface summarizes all ten volumes, detailing the content of each. The volumes are organized by subject matter rather than chronology—a logical approach for such a comprehensive collection. Notably, Paul Samuelson employed a similar method in organizing his collected papers in the 1970s.

4. Vita Cardani per Gabrielem Naudaeum (Life of Cardan by Gabriel Naudé): Naudé’s biography is a profound and balanced account of Cardano, highlighting both his achievements and flaws. Written by a contemporary of great intellectual rigor (Naudé lived from 1600–1653), it draws on sources closer to Cardano's time. Naudé's style, erudition, and reverence for Cardano make this biography unparalleled.

5. Testimonia (Testimonies): This section compiles writings about Cardano by various scholars. Figures such as Jacques-Auguste de Thou, Julius Caesar Scaliger, and Giovanni Battista Silvatico praise Cardano as the most learned man of his era. Even Scaliger, Cardano’s rival, acknowledged his intellect despite their disputes. These testimonies collectively underscore Cardano's unparalleled breadth of knowledge.

6. Previlege du Roy (Royal Permission): This document, authorized by King Louis XIV’s council, permits the publication of the Opera Omnia. Edited by Charles Spon and published by Jean Antoine and Marc-Antoine Ravaud, it notes the completion of the printing on April 17, 1663.

Cardano’s contributions to human knowledge are monumental. His writings span every conceivable subject, and his insights enriched each field he explored. Cardano himself declared: "I was born to courageously rid the world of its mistakes." Similarly, the English polymath Thomas Browne admired Cardano's intellectual ambition, though he criticized him for occasional carelessness. Browne remarked, “He is of singular use unto a prudent Reader…[but] may become no small occasion of Error” for the less discerning.

Cardano’s prose, enriched by citations from ancient authorities, reflects his preparation for every counterargument—a hallmark of a truly learned man. His works inspire readers to pursue knowledge with rigor and to appreciate the wisdom of great thinkers. As Cicero observed in On Duties: “When relaxed from our necessary cares and concerns, we covet to see, to hear, and to learn; and we esteem knowledge of things either obscure or wonderful as indispensable for living happily.”

Yes, indeed, it is true, and on this subject, I am reminded of what the great 15th-century scholar and philosopher Lionardo Alberti—older cousin to the great Leon Battista Alberti—said on the 81st page of On the Family. He says to us young scholars:

"You, young men, should do just as you now are doing; you should work hard at the study of books. Be assiduous. Let it give you satisfaction to know past things worth remembering. Let it delight you to know past things that are good and useful. Savor the pleasure of storing your mind with charming aphorisms. Delight in ornamenting your spirit with most noble ways. Try to make your civil life shine by your splendid character. Seek to know human and divine things which, with good reason, are entrusted to writing. No conjunction of voice and song is so sweet and well matched as to equal the harmony of a verse of Homer, Virgil, or any other of the best poets. There is no recreation so wonderful and lovely that it can equal the entertainment and charm offered by an oration of Demosthenes, Tully, Livy, Xenophon, or other orators who, like these, are elegant and perfect in every way. There is no labor so rewarding, if we should call it labor at all rather than pleasure or recreation of mind and soul, as the reading and study of many substantial works. You come out of it filled with significant examples, abounding in aphorisms, rich in persuasive points, strong in arguments and reasons. Then you can make yourself listened to. You are eagerly heard among other citizens. They admire, praise, and love you."

And on the 83rd page of the same book, it tells us:

"The intellect, they say, is like a drinking vessel; if you first fill it with bad stuff, it always retains something of the taste. This is why one should avoid crude and rough writers. One should follow the finest and most polished, keep them ever at hand, never tire of rereading them, recite them aloud frequently, and commit them to memory. I do not say anything against the knowledge found in any erudite and abundant source, but I decidedly prefer the good writers to the poor ones, and as there are enough whose work is perfect, I am sorry when people select the others."

No doubt, Cardano is perhaps the greatest of all the sources one could mention and use, as he knew all else. Whenever I am in contemplation of whether I should buy a book or not, I tell myself: "Is there anything in this book which Cardano doesn't give insight on? Of what use would it be to buy this book if Cardano has already treated this subject?" But funnily enough, I often buy the book anyway. The justification of this comes from Cardano himself:

"'What's left to write?'—you say. But you are wrong, as they say, from part to part. I proved to you long ago that nothing has been written about anything and that the properties and essences of things are themselves infinite."

Indeed, Cardano seems to be making the same argument Heraclitus makes about no man stepping into the same river twice. You may do something that is similar—in the context of writing, that would be writing on the same topic in a similar manner—but it is never the same word for word, nor is the intention for writing the work ever the same either. I don't agree with Cicero when he said in the second book of his De Divinatione:

"There is nothing so absurd that it has not been said by some philosopher."

This is not an analytical truth. Just because one writes on the same thing doesn't make it the same thing. If one wishes to hold this strict definition of sameness, then let them have it, but I would consider this definition a foolish one, for you lose any insight that you may gain if you read the work that treats the same topic as something new. As Cardano says, the properties that make up something are indeed infinite and may be composed in different arrangements in an equally infinite way, which is what leads Cardano into saying that "nothing has been written about anything."

To not consider something because you "have already read something similar" is complete folly and should not be followed in any manner. It is quite true that Cicero himself says in his De Inventione:

"For it is not having insufficient knowledge, but persisting a long time in insufficient knowledge that is shameful; since the one is assumed to be a disease common to all, but the other is assumed to be a flaw to an individual."

Do not miss out on any potential learning opportunity just because you have considered one authority. You must always strive to seek new sources and fill your head with new and interesting facts from other people that may be of great surprise and importance to you later down the road. To not do this would be, as Cicero said, an individual who persists for a long time in insufficient knowledge.

It was Descartes who famously said:

"If you would be a real seeker after truth, you must at least once in your life doubt, as far as possible, all things,"

and furthermore stated, "De omnibus dubitandum," that is, doubt everything. For it is doubting that is the origin of wisdom, as Descartes also said. From doubting, one begins to question whether what they have received from one source is really good enough or if there are other places where one may be instructed and come to know something greater. I have found this idea to be very helpful personally, and I have come to know many different varieties and ideas that give me great pleasure.

No one knew this better, perhaps, than that tremendous genius among all scholars of his age, Pico Della Mirandola. It was he who said:

"Nor can anyone rightly choose his own doctrine from all, unless he has first made himself familiar with all of them. Moreover, there is in each school something distinctive, which it has not in common with any other."

Thus, I leave you with this, reader: Learn from the great sources as Lionardo tells us. Don't be discouraged to write what you learn of, as Cardano tells us. Doubt all the knowledge that you receive until you have made it all satisfactory to yourself, as Descartes mentions. And last but not least, scour through all the different positions and schools of thought that may arise during your investigation, and give yourself no break until you have a command of them all and understand each side like the back of your hand, as Mirandola tells us.

With this lengthy introduction out of the way, allow me to put the introductory writings of Cardano's Opera Omnia, Volume 1, in the way they originally appeared, the only difference being they are in modern English for all those who speak the language and wish to enjoy this piece of history.

Frontispiece

ALL THE WORKS OF JEROME CARDAN OF MILAN,
Most Famous Philosopher and Physician,
UNTIL NOW PUBLISHED,
here, however, enlarged and corrected; which have never been seen before,
and first taken from the Author's own Autographs:
By CHARLES SPON,
Doctor and Member of the Medical College of the City of Lyon.

FIRST VOLUME.
CONTAINING
PHILOLOGICAL, LOGICAL, MORAL WORKS.
A UNIVERSAL INDEX OF WORKS IS FOUND AT THE END OF THE AUTHOR'S BIOGRAPHY.
LYONS,
Published by JOHANNES ANTONIUS HUGUETANUS,
and MARCUS ANTONIUS RAVAUDUS.

Dedicatory Letter

To Guillaume de Lamoignon, Supreme Prince of the French Senate:

See what you are doing, Scipio; that knife belongs to a few men only: a witty dinner guest warned us. We see what we are doing, MOST ILLUSTRIOUS WILLIAM; that author, although he has written many volumes, belongs to a few men only. But he belongs to your equals, to illustrious dinner guests, to the vast herd of learned men; and you are his equal, and he is yours.

This is Girolamo Cardano, that shrewd Italian, a man of versatile talent and a hundred-fold Doctor of Arts, who knocks at your doors seeking a patron for his offspring: a work which he has striven to present, new and full of numbers, for the first time to Europe. However, he wished to use us as his nursemaids and educators; so that we, if not delivering these offspring still blushing from the womb, at least stained by the press, might present them to your threshold.

And oh, that the nation of scholars may recognize how much industry and diligence we have devoted to publishing, as much as that genius and erudition he employed in writing! Whatever happens, we can honestly testify that we have spared no effort in searching out, transcribing, and correcting all of this author's works. For we would not want anything of such a great man to be lost, whether it lay hidden in archives or lingered in private collections.

We have searched the corners of many libraries in France, Italy, and Germany, from which we have fished out manuscript codices and even Cardano's own autographs with golden hooks. But above all, we have taken care that only legitimate and genuine works be included here, under the guidance of the Prince of the Purple of Themis. This is easily demonstrated by the purity of style and the consistent tone of the meaning. And certainly, if we were to introduce anything spurious, your Paris, sharp-eyed city, would immediately expose it; and then, woe to us, eternal woe, to the deceivers!

But it has happened in a fortunate way that just as Cardano's previous works were brought to light several years ago in illustrious Basel and in the Roman colony of Nomeny Plancy, so this posthumous and new work, along with the previous ones, is being published today in our Lyons and in the other Plancy colony. Both cities are certainly worthy of producing generous offspring for the world, and of inspiring free spirits in the children of the freest men; and they will exultingly acclaim to your manes, Cardan, to your manes they will shout, "Fortune, Fame, Liberty, and Erudition, to your goddess!"

And you will not be any less fortunate, most excellent Prince, if after admitting him graciously into your presence, you also commend him to the crown of the learned. Otherwise, he wavers frequently in uncertainty; the many honors he has already earned will either be increased or diminished on this very day.

For although his fame is great, and his merits greater, he has already acquired many adversaries, some of whom he experienced as most bitter while still alive and enjoying his glory. But after his death (which also caused mourning among his opponents, especially the great Scaliger), certain malicious and venomous creatures, scorpions of someone else's fame, have infested the earth with their poison: since they could not match him in virtue and strength, they have attacked him with their little stings and venom.

As the judgments of the ignorant are unjust, they have dared to place an innocent man, now a corpse and dust, among the accursed practitioners of the black arts. Truly, because your understanding was surpassed by the secret matters, you are cracking and bursting with anger, and you are making a noise like a madman.

How calumnious, how foolishly, will your justice pronounce, most excellent Prince, to whose tribunal this case is devolved by this appeal. In this contest, with the defendant himself being silent and no defending counsel, nor indeed is there a need, these very books will argue the case themselves.

As for the rest, let us frankly admit that Cardano, as befits a philosopher, freely expresses his views everywhere. For although he has spent a considerable part of his life among the masked, he never appears masked. And just as he always avoids being a slave to other people's opinions, so he never foolishly admires or cunningly hides himself or his own; he is the least of all dissemblers, and indeed more severe on the errors of his own people and his own life than on those of others. Moreover, he embraced with the vastness of his intellect all the sciences, which hardly one could achieve in his respective fields. And perhaps he knew too much, which is safest to ignore, but he knew it so as to refute it, or to curse it, or to ridicule it. Nevertheless, it would be desirable that he had preferred to control his genius and to cultivate only Physiology and its Medicine, rather than to fly and to luxuriate in all things: political, economic, mechanical, astrological, transient, eternal, supernatural, and infernal. But it happens this way: variety pleases, and a mad curiosity crazily turns the human mind in all directions.

Therefore, these things are offered to you, the Supreme Magistrate: By Hercules, just as it is the duty of both magistrates and wise men to know, judge, choose, and reject all things. Moreover, every free and truly noble soul, such as Nature and a better God implanted in you, eagerly seeks serious studies if they are seasoned with the honey of pleasantness; and is especially attracted by the elixir of novelty. Such things frequently occur in Cardano, which he always pursues in his own way, namely for the perpetual use of life, morals, and health: and this without deceit and pretense, and too often without elegance; indeed, he loves things more than words. Although, when he tries to be elegant, he does it with great effort: and in this he surpasses many others. However, if anything should slip from the author's pen in such a large amount of writing that you would not wish to have said, it is certainly compensated for by a thousand and a thousand well-spoken words: and even that same thing increases the beauty of the others; just as in a painting, a slight shading adds to the honor of the picture.

We dedicate, speak of, and present these works to Your name, which are so diverse, curious, and eagerly awaited. This is most deserved since, in that lofty dignity and shining purple, our books find their honor with You; and since You appreciate the art of typography and booksellers, and are accustomed to praising them, as they are the guardians of immortality. And even though You live the busiest of mortal lives, You still manage to allocate your time to the Muses, refreshing your sacred mind at their holy altar. Indeed, You believe that studying and contemplating is a game, and that the sweet singing of your Forensic Nightingales, the birds of Apollo's Palace, soothes your ears and mind from those dry Laws and disputes that could break even iron and bronze. But they sing publicly; privately, however, they sing to You themselves in your spacious and most select library, and Apollo and the chorus of the Muses sing along. In this most delightful harmony, our Cardanus will not fail to sustain his own part fittingly.

But other, far greater things have impelled us to this dedication. All good men remember, and the wicked have not forgotten, how much our country owes to you; from the time when, in the midst of our most turbulent times, you bravely defended your post with only a few companions, and, amidst the factions and the rage of a hundred-headed monster, you did not hesitate to uphold the authority of the crown, surrounding yourself with your own valor, and prepared to die willingly for so just a cause. Truly, death is a sweet name for a noble and senatorial man who falls for his king.

For these merits, the greatest and most just of kings, among so many chosen men, wanted to choose you as the most chosen one, to govern the primary seat of justice in his kingdom. And this was done with Lutetia rejoicing, indeed the whole kingdom, for you were already well-known; since the Sacred Council of the Prince, where you had placed your apprenticeship in virtue, holds the opinion of the law throughout all of Gaul. And no one could have been chosen more from the public's desire, who could wipe away that mourning and dry those tears which all good men shed over the premature death of your illustrious predecessor, POMPONIUS BELLEVRÆUS, of Lyonnais origin: whom Themis and the Graces had fashioned for themselves from better metal. It is ill-fated for you, fates, envious fates, who have snatched him away, hastening towards the glory of his ancestors. But it is well done for the great king, a skillful farmer, who makes sure he lives and flourishes, and is enriched with similar gold. For, most noble Guillaume, your related virtues demand related honors and related encomiums. You, like him, are all candor and probity, as great as you are. You have, like him, a high mind, a wise intellect, a friendly face, and pure hands. The things that were loved in him are also loved in you: dignity without arrogance, joyfulness without extravagance, gravity without being morose, nobility without being pompous, and even literary qualities that are so modestly displayed that they adorn the learned world in a remarkably pleasant way. As for your knowledge of Roman and Gallic law, as well as political and ecclesiastical matters, the legal oracles testify to it. Like the other Pomponius (whether he is ours or that Pandectist), you daily pour forth, in clear and vigorous language, the very essence of cases that you extract from their very depths, often unprepared and unexpectedly. Therefore, we heartily congratulate you on your adornments, dignity, wisdom, constancy, erudition, and we augur something more sublime and august for your future. If that sun returns to us, then the day you become old will be seen as nothing ever healthier, nothing more pleasing than France has ever witnessed!

These flatteries of glory perhaps do not attract you, and instead, you are inclined to give an attentive ear to the groans of miserable supplicants, whom the hectic fever of judicial proceedings has affixed to the thresholds of the Palace, emaciated and exhausted. It is natural for you to want to help, and he gives twice who gives quickly: to love to render justice quickly is to render it twice. This is especially true for us from the remote provinces, who are dragged to your tribunals, panting after three hundred and sixty Roman miles, but with only eighteen legal days. It would be pious and just to put an end or a limit to these miseries and to extinguish the viperine offspring of litigation, or to send it back to its own authors. The learned know from which part of the world this pestilence has invaded us, and from what time the expertise of the Forum, once easy and simple among us, degenerated into fox-like and lupine artifice, and even our Jurisprudence, pure, holy, and venerable, often touched by impure hands, has scarcely survived, so that the Gallic matron has become an Avignon harlot. Many great men before you have attempted to erase these stains and restore the former majesty of the goddess [Justice], but the injustice of the times has always stubbornly resisted their efforts, more indomitable than the one you must now subdue alone, in this peaceful kingdom, against the wickedness of men. You will crush it bit by bit, O most valiant hammer of evildoers; and whatever poisonous dust remains, you will dissipate it with the daily spirit of Senate decrees. A desirable and difficult task! But it is by no means hopeless with you, our great patron, and with the greater auspice of LOUIS, given to us by God, to undertake the heroic task of correcting our times. He desires this, and rejoices to do so; therefore he will accomplish it. For what is impossible for a great king and a young man who possesses abundance of gold, iron, wisdom, and the hearts of his own people? That word, which is harsh and barbarous to a Roman orator, is most sweet and Gallic to our king. This prince, the best and greatest, who, in the very course of his victories, granted peace to his enemies, will not allow our family to perish in a more destructive war and to be devoured alive by famished harpies. O God of peace and peacemakers, grant us peace, external, internal, and eternal.

We were writing from Lyon on the banks of the Saône, on the first day of January, in the climactic year of the century 1663. Would that the Palatine hydra were, under Hercules Louis, destroyed. (I.H.)

To Your Most Illustrious Dignity,

Your most devoted and loyal servants,
JOANNES ANTONIVS HVGVETAN, and MARCVS ANTONIVS RAVAVD.

Preface

Dear reader,

Among the countless writers of the past century, scarcely anyone appears whose works have been received and celebrated by erudite people with greater applause and admiration than those of Jerome Cardan, the most noble professor of medicine from Milan. This is well-deserved, as his works are abundantly rich in erudition, rare in perspicacity, and sublime in humanity. In fact, his philosophical works are especially delightful, like a most gratifying drink. Thus, the author himself, who deserved to be heard as the greatest dictator of letters by some men of great renown, by others as an incomparable man, and by others as a prodigy of genius.

Therefore, as we had thoroughly examined most of his works, and some of them were not easily found, and others were printed in a most corrupted way, and many have never been brought to light, we decided to collect all of them, both published and unpublished, from wherever they could be obtained, and to publish them in a more magnificent and widely accepted form in libraries, at our own expense, for the benefit of the public good. However, when we began this undertaking, we were almost suffocated by the many difficulties that immediately arose. Nevertheless, we persevered with the help of the wise counsels of our colleagues, encouraged especially by the friendly breeze of Charles Spon, our doctor. For he was not at all reluctant to present us with so many and various works of Cardan, and to give them to us with careful economy. In this matter, even if Gabriel Naudé tried somewhat to follow in his footsteps, he did not hesitate to use his own resources to a greater extent.

We hope that the judgment of candid estimators of things will find it fortunate. Therefore, this is the first part of the Bibliotheca, in which all the Philological works are placed at the forefront, along with Logic and Morals. Then follow those pertaining to Physiology. Mathematics of various kinds, such as Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, Astronomy, Astrology, and Onirocritics, are added. Finally, there are works on Medicine. The Miscellaneous works close the procession, made up of Fragments and Paralipomena. Now, if all of these are to be arranged into ten volumes or sections with proportionate weight distributed in each, it should be no surprise that the first volume would claim one portion of Ethics, while the second claims another; similarly, if the second volume strengthens one portion of Physics, then the third claims another. Finally, if the four volumes of Medicine, namely the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth, are divided according to the abundance of the materials, it is done so. The general index, which is located in its proper place, will show how many volumes were put together and which books or treatises they were made up of, and in what order they were arranged.

However, since among these works there are some that are only now coming to light, which were extracted from the author's own handwriting, we have decided that they should be marked with the symbol (+) in the recently praised index, so that they can be easily distinguished from those already published long ago. Nevertheless, it is indeed regrettable that, if anything else, the injustice of fate has deprived us of some relics of such a great man. In fact, many of the manuscripts were either torn, poorly kept by cockroaches and mice, or inscribed with such obsolete and unintelligible notes that nothing of value could be extracted from them. In this category were the two newest of the ten books of Contending Physicians, which had to be omitted for that reason. Also omitted were various books of Geometry Elements, Treatise on Putrid Fevers, Treatise on Syphilis, Commentaries on Book III, VI, Epidemics of Hippocrates, as well as Commentaries on Galen's Medical Art and Commentaries on Galen's Books of Prognoses. Galen on the Differences of Diseases and Symptoms, as well as in Galen's Books on the Differences of Fevers. Finally, in addition to these, it must be acknowledged that certain other writings of Cardan, mentioned by Gabriel Naudé, are lacking here, such as the book on extraordinary prudence, the book on the origin of winds, and experiments on all diseases. I will not speak further of the writings that are thought to have been lost, among which, in addition to the thirteen books on metoposcopy, which Naudé, now praised, affirms to have perished, many other books by the same author are scattered throughout, whose mere titles survive today, while the context no longer appears at all.

Who, I ask, could not grieve the complete loss of so many lucubrations? Indeed, even of those whose remains we were able to religiously gather and consecrate to posterity, we believe that the sum of their excellence and amplitude can be gathered in no other way than from the mere footprint of the Herculanean body, which is said to have been once detected by the stature of Pythagoras or rather from one or another of the effaced bones, the height of the giants being given to our imagination. I wish that those impostors would arise who, using Mercury more successfully than we did, could kindly reveal to us the notes that escaped us, so that they would undoubtedly receive the utmost gratitude from us and from all other citizens of the republic of letters. Farewell, most humane reader, and kindly favor our endeavors.

Life of Cardan by Gabriel Naudé

It seemed to me not without purpose to commit my judgment on Cardano to writing, so that it may serve as a standard for forming an opinion of him. For I am not ignorant of how difficult it is to adapt one's own intellect and judgment to that of another. But when I see learned men devote their attention only to those works of Cardano which can bring some benefit to their own lives and studies, while the rest of the works that he labored over in almost every branch of learning are either completely unknown or kept only as ornaments in their libraries because their discovery is difficult, I did not think that anyone among them was suitable to pass judgment on Cardano. For to pronounce a judgment on any subject without diligently examining each and every aspect of it is the mark of an overly confident person, and one who is abusing not only his own time but also that of others.

However, even though I may have the mental acuity and the depth of various and obscure erudition that one should possess to bring to light, from all corners and the inner sanctums of the Muses, Cardan's wondrous intellect in every science, and to reveal it in its entirety to the open light of humanity, I will not lie if I say that I have been delighted by the works of no other author more passionately than by his, from the very beginning of my youth and the onset of my freer intellectual cultivation. In fact, when his books on Wisdom were not yet available from booksellers before being printed again, I could not obtain them by either entreaty or payment, as many of my friends can testify, and I not only did not find this laborious task unpleasant but, on the contrary, I found it extremely gratifying to copy them out with my own hand. And so, I have always been attracted by that varied and manifold doctrine of Cardan, leaving no stone unturned, whether it was to investigate it in his own books or in those of Camutius, Tartalea, Duns, Scaliger, and others, be it Medical, Moral, Philosophical, Mathematical, Historical, Political, Philological, or of any other kind. And it so happened that, before I left for Italy with my most felicitous master, John Francis of the Counts Guidi from Bagnoregio, who was the Most Eminent Cardinal of the Holy Roman Church, nothing at all was missing from Cardan's life, morals, books, or opinions, which I could not account for, like my own fingers and nails. And even now, all these things seem to have been so ingrained in me that I fear I may not be prepared to tackle that judgment. But I undertake it not because of my lack of diligence, nor because of my confidence in my own intellect, nor because of my desire to obstruct or to criticize, but rather because I feel I must comply with the wishes of those who, devoted to better studies, have been less attentive in scrutinizing Cardan, and with no animosity or bias whatsoever, I thus proceed.

First of all, therefore, with regard to the life and character of the man, if we consider what he said about himself in the example of his nativity and in books such as "Consolation," "On Wisdom," "On the Benefit to Be Derived from Adversity," "On His Own Books," "On His Life," and elsewhere, no one was born of lower birth, weaker in nature, or more neglected in education; he was unhappier in marriage, with children, servants, and in every aspect of his life he was poorer, more miserable, and more afflicted.

And these were the losses of his body and fortune, but if anyone had imposed upon him an intellect such as he attested to in his natal horoscope, he could have wielded it against him rightfully under the law of penalty and would not have wished anyone to describe it in a bad poem. For he said that from the influence of Venus and the Moon, and from his dominance of Mercury, and to a moderate extent, Saturn, he had fashioned for himself a disposition characterized by a tendency towards frivolity, contempt for religion, a memory of wrongs, envy, laziness, unfaithfulness, treachery, magic, and sorcery, frequently subject to calamities, given over to base lusts, solitary, hated, harsh, even divining without cause, prone to jealousy, obscene, lascivious, malicious, changeable, uncertain, impure, a slanderer, and altogether unknown due to the contradiction between his character and his nature, even to those with whom he frequently associated.

And there is certainly no doubt in my mind that he himself was such as he presented himself to all others: for it cannot be more truly said that such habits were inherent in him by nature not only here, but elsewhere he has repeatedly emphasized it, so that nothing can be considered more true. And whoever has known Cardano's nature most intimately will find it not much removed from this jumble of epithets; not to mention even the judgments of other very serious men, who rightly claim that Cardano has concocted amazing fables about himself and lived as if he were insane.

And indeed, I do not see what else can be thought of a man who gave credence to vain and especially ridiculous dreams, omens, and superstitions; who was entirely dependent on the observations of delirious old women; who would wander out of his senses in ecstasy whenever he pleased; who saw apparitions and ghosts; who would believe foolishly or maliciously lie that he was speaking with some friendly spirit or guardian angel; who married without a dowry; who neglected the education of his sons: pulled the ear of his younger son and often punished the boy named William with beatings, even though he was innocent.

He claimed to have been discarded by his father as illegitimate and to have been subjected to an abortifacient before he was born. He sometimes appeared in public dressed in rags or in strange clothing at night. He preferred to say nothing during conversations with friends, unless he knew it would be unwelcome. He saw the moon in the sky during the day as often as he did at night. He walked through Rome dressed differently from others and rode in a carriage with only three wheels in Bologna. He engaged in fights when he was young, pursued prostitutes when he was an adult, and could not resist gambling even as an old man.

He not only kept his shameful actions and the smallest of his immoral deeds hidden away in his private home, where they could have rotted and remained hidden from the world like the filth of other people, but also made them nauseatingly available to readers through his numerous absurdities and unstructured narratives: If doing these things is the mark of a wise man, I do not know why Orestes, Corabus, and Amphistides, who are themselves wise, cannot be counted among them.

However, Cardanus could also have shown the excellence of his skill, as he himself calls it, his anomaly, together with his name and reputation, if in the example of his own natal horoscope (since this was the most suitable place) he had revealed only those feelings and inclinations that could be exposed with safe modesty and integrity of name in order to indicate the excellence of his art. But he need not recall any more than Erasmus, Longolius, and Campanus, who although they were born of uncertain parentage and endured the greatest poverty and distress in life, since they were more cautious in concealing and covering up such matters, Cardanus, by at least not divulging his name, has not yet suffered any diminution of his praise.

And I would ask how many men are there, to whom, as the satirist warns, it is easy to raise murmurs, to be humble, and to whisper, to take things from the temples, and to live with an open vow? I am certainly no different in this respect than Juvenal of old, when I see a remarkable, holy man, if such a thing can be called a man with two members, this monster seen by a wondering boy under the plough, I compare it to fishes and mules. For all men are by their own nature wicked, foolish, and depraved, and if they openly offend, how much more are they like Cardano among the confines of private family life?

Therefore, he who hates him for those private vices should also hate other men if he were to delve into their innermost secrets. Indeed, each person sins, becomes insane, delirious, and only knows enough to cloud their sins and frauds in the guise of the beautiful institution of Laverna. This same Cardano, either by the impetus of his freer nature or by the confidence of his most excellent virtues, which far outweigh so many flaws, could not ultimately be made into something else.

Therefore, if someone were to ask me what should be said about the life and character of Cardano, I would certainly not want to exempt him from foolishness, since it is clear that he has revealed so much foolishness and absurdity about himself, which he should have buried and condemned forevermore in eternal silence, as other men do. However, since Seneca, who had a very weighty opinion, claimed that there had never been a great mind without a mixture of madness, and the philosophers of great renown did not live completely free from it, such as Porphyry, Iamblichus, Aedesius, Maximus, Chrysanthius, and others praised by Eunapius, who were not concerned with Marsian Augurs, nor with village diviners, nor with African circus astrologers, nor with the interpreters of dreams.

That they (Philosophers) would have made little of dreams, terrors, portents, Genii, Lemures, and such foolish observations, which Eunapius is full of, rather than being servants of magical vanity. These things indeed could have provided Cardano with a defense against being immediately sent to Anticyra (a city known for its mental health treatments), for it is certain that the nature of intellect is not the same in all men, and that in their differences, certain things are found in the vicissitudes of time, which, due to the unknown syndrome of causes, whether it be the abundance of biliousness or better-constructed organs, or the splendor of the superior intellect's influence, many know and see what is denied to all others.

And as if they were continually drunk or separated from their senses, they possess incoherent manners, confused speech, an uneven life indeed, but on the other hand, they apprehend difficult things quickly and easily retain them; they also sense, prophesy, speak of unknown things, reveal secrets, and adhere to vain or solid things according to the sects or religions to which they are addicted or the duties to which they are bound, just as is seen in those Platonic philosophers and Cardano, who have diligently observed Spectra, Lemures, Portents, and other such things which Peripatetics mock as signs of extreme dementia, from the teachings of the Academy, as well as auguries, dreams, oracles, and the like from the invariable necessity of Fate.

Therefore, it could be seen from these and similar reasons that Cardano did nothing different from the customs of those who have obtained such a difference in intellect: But since, with a love of truth, he contends that nothing has ever been more important to him, and consequently often breaks out into those words, "I never remember lying," I, who have devoted myself to the pursuit of truth and similar endeavors that occur throughout his books, on the other hand, have discovered that he was the most dishonest of men, and that the rest, which some call delusions, have stemmed from this source for no small reason.

And so that no one may think that I said this without due consideration, let him know that the matter is of great importance and I confirm it with sealed documents, the validity of which even Cardano himself, if he were alive now, could rightly call into question. For in Chapter XII of his own Life, he had said, "I never learned grammar, neither Greek nor French nor Spanish, but only picked up a certain amount of usage, I don't know how," and earlier in Chapter IX he had claimed to have been miraculously helped in understanding Latin, which miracle he finally explains in Chapter XLI as follows: "Who was that man who sold me Apulcius, the Latin author, if I remember correctly, from the year 20 B.C., and then left? I who had not been in any school except once, who had no knowledge of the Latin language, imprudently bought it because it was gold-plated. The next day I emerged as I am now in Latin, and I also learned Greek as if by magic, and Spanish and French, but only insofar as I could understand books, being completely ignorant of conversation, narration, and the rules of grammar."

But those words from his work about his own books, which are found towards the end of the books on Wisdom and Consolation, declare how consistent this is with the truth:

"Meanwhile, I was devoting myself to Grammar and Dialectics, when I was about twenty-three years old. For, when I was about thirty-five, I diligently applied myself to learning the Greek language. Hence, I say, this year I have not attempted anything difficult, being shaken by excessive attention to the study of Greek literature."

And a little later, he adds, "I condensed Micyllus' book into an epitome, which I joined to the book on the instruction of Greek literature."

However, although this falsehood may seem to be the slightest miracle, since nothing has followed from it that has brought Cardano any benefit, the same cannot be said of that which it is now opportune to weave into a few words of history. For when he had confidently written in Book 5 on Wisdom, "While I was laboring under envy in this city, and not making any profit, I tried many new things in vain. For outside of my profession, nothing worked. Finally, I came up with a solution to the long-standing problem of Phthisis (which they call Pihol), and I healed many people who are still alive today, with no greater difficulty than curing the French disease. The illustrious John Hamilton, Archbishop of St. Andrews, Papal Legate and President of the Holy See and the Kingdom of Scotland, happened to hear about my promises of a cure for Phthisis, which he was then miserably suffering from. He thought that his salvation lay in this secret of mine. Therefore, he enticed me to Scotland with great promises and, with his cooperation, I nearly cured him after several months. Although I did not completely achieve my goal, I left Scotland with many honors, which I rightly counted among the greatest achievements of my life."

But now let us see how Cardano reports the whole affair in the Rouillé edition of his own books, based on a solemn lie that he unwillingly produced. "This," he says, "is worthy of admiration since I never lied." However, this good fortune came from a lie. For it was not true that I had healed those suffering from Phthisis, nor was I deliberately lying or entirely lying at that time, for I hoped to be able to heal them. Fate drove me, as if Fortune had never possessed true virtue. May it be that, by not wanting to lie egregiously, this sole lie that fell from me involuntarily would bring me so much benefit and pleasure.

And to these two lies, I add a third, which was quite famous, because of that Genius that Cardano so often praised in the history of his life and books, and in all his works, which he emphasized so much that it became tiresome and tedious. Thus, it would be a very long, difficult, and tedious task to compile everything he said about this deity in various places to give a fuller account of its history. However, since he explained in the Dialogue on Human Affairs what it really was, it will suffice to bring Thetis and Ram into the conversation on this topic:

RAM: So many and such wonderful things happened to him in his life that even I, who am his closest friend, am forced to suspect that he has a Genius, a great, powerful, and rare one, who is not the master of his own actions, who does not have what he desires, and desires not what he has, let alone what he hopes for. He, however, denies it, but when he considers that everything is subject to God, he rests.

TET: But what is its nature? For some say that they are Saturnian, others Jovian, and so on for others.

RAM: He suspects that it is a mixture of Venus, Saturn, and Mercury.

TET: All such people live miserably and perish, although some have a great name.

RAM: I don't know about that, as I only know him, his father, and Socrates, who enjoyed the companionship of such Geniuses.

By Hercules, if that Socratic daemon was not much different from the one whom Cardano boasts to have been his companion, I fear that both will be considered as mere fables from now on. As for the latter, it is astonishing how he relies on worn-out and feeble supports, or rather, how he has exposed himself to vain and ridiculous remarks.

Firstly, he used to be warned by dreams and noises. Secondly, it became even more known when Cardano, as Thetis reveals, was cured without any medication of a hernia in the right side of his abdomen and was also relieved from urinary retention. Finally, he caused palpitations of the heart and ringing in the ears.

But all of this could not satisfy Cardano, for he said in his autobiography that he had long believed he had a good and merciful spirit, but he could only detect how to be more certain about future events when he was 74 years old, while he was writing his own life. However, at that time, he could not know that even if the whole story about the favor of the Genius was not only empty and ridiculous, but also completely fabricated, according to Cardano himself, who was also a judge in his own case.

In Book 16, Chapter 93 of his Variety, he denies ever having had any Genius, "I certainly know of no demon or genius who accompanies me," he says. He then adds, "I know well that I have been given reason, patience in great labors, a good mind, contempt for money and honors, all of which I highly value, and I consider better and more ample gifts from the demon of Socrates."

With this free and honest confession worthy of an upright man, that heap of nonsense that Cardano wrote about his familiar spirit, his brilliance, his visions, the moon seen at midday, and other similar lies and fabrications, which he brought to the public theater to be laughed at when he was not in his right mind, collapses.

However, it is certain that Cardano was not always in control of himself, as evidenced by the most reliable testimony of all: the variety of conflicting opinions that he held. It is not believable that he forgot what he had already said or cunningly presented opposing views when it comes to the matter at hand, especially since he was known to have a remarkable memory in other areas.

The suspicion of artifice and cunning is removed because he spoke of grand things, but always contradictory and never connected or coherent with each other. The heat and passion that great minds are sometimes consumed by, and which they often marvel at or can no longer understand once it has subsided, may be the reason behind this.

If someone wants to attribute this only to the presence of a certain Genius, it is certainly a great entry point for the gullible and superstitious, who are eager to attribute Geniuses to figures like Socrates, Plotinus, Cicero, Brutus, Cassius, Caesar, Synesius, Porphyry, Iamblichus, Chicco Asculano, and even Julius Scaliger and countless others who, either driven by ambition or nurtured in the schools of Platonists and Kabbalists, claim to have received this gift from their Geniuses. They should have quickly marveled at and appreciated the sublimity of their own nature in this matter.

But only a few see things clearly or do not become enslaved by their own passions. And I wish they were not among those who, because of similar trifles and whims, determine the state of the miserable, well and auspiciously if they assert to have participated in conversations with the gods and in musical and celestial pleasures, but badly and ominously if they claim to have mixed themselves with the choruses and feasts of demons, due to the fault of their impaired imagination.

And indeed, I have spent more time addressing Cardano's falsehood or, as I would rather say, delirium regarding his Genius, which I hope will result in a great accession of good sense for all demonographers, so that they may not rush so precipitously to judge those who are reported to have lived in the company of demons due to uncertain or false rumors.

Because Jerome Cardano, whose example is especially cited against such a scandalous request, has absolutely nothing about his Genius that could be prejudicial to those poor and often foolish individuals. However, since I am not making a case for them, I finally return to the fact that due to a certain intemperance of his mind, Cardano was never equal and composed, and he said many absurd things that were not at all consistent with each other.

It is well known that all melancholics, such as he was, are proud, overly self-flattering, and elevated because melancholia, being halitotic, makes their minds windy and inflamed with the desire for great things, such as fame, honor, and authority. They are also suspicious, moody, envious, malicious, tenacious of grudges, cruel, unloving like Timon, Caro, Diogenes, and like those on the extreme boundary of human nature, whether heavenly or beastly, or sometimes a mixture of both, who easily take offense at the slightest provocation.

Now, it follows that we consider the extent and quality of Cardano's teachings. In this matter, I understand that I should not follow the practice of those who never see Cardano as a whole, nor consider him from the vast volumes he left us in almost every field of science, but only as a physician or mathematician. For, as far as the present purpose is concerned, I usually divide the greatest intellects into two parts: the first and lowest, in my judgment, are those who have been exercised in cultivating a certain profession, separate from others and almost solitary, so that they are considered worthy to precede all others on their own merit.

Thus, Euclid, Pappus, Archimedes, Vieta, Galileo in mathematics; Ptolemy, Tycho, Copernicus, Gassendi in astronomy; Plato, Aristotle, Albertus, Pomponatius, Cremoninus, Licetus in philosophy; Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna, Fernelius, Duretus, Riolanus, Moraeus in medical dissertations, occupy first place with the consent of everyone, and, if my conjecture does not deceive me, they will retain the same position throughout the subsequent course of ages. This is because there is nothing more difficult in the sciences than to cast out those great men who have paved the way to the citadel of knowledge, like once effete and old men thrown off the bridge.

The second and truly highest difference among intellects encompasses those individuals who, with a certain greater privilege of kinder nature, are not fixed and addicted to only one science like a Polypus (octopus) attached to a rock, but rather they wander more or less throughout the sphere of those sciences. Just like those who, by discovering the unknown, make Germany their home and explore Italy; some also go to Spain and England, and journey throughout all of Europe. Others, like Drake, have been accustomed to circumnavigate the entire world.

And truly, just as there is a threefold division of these wandering scholars, since the greatest breadth belongs to that highest class, it seemed appropriate to me to establish three degrees or orders among those people whom their studies encompass. Thus, the first order will be dedicated to those who, after diligently exploring the humanities, also wished to venture into the disciplines close to them, such as Agellio, Macrobic, Petrarchae, Politiano, Vallae, Calcagnino, Giraldo, Campano, Foxio, Rhodio, Tomasino, Gaudentio, and others of their ilk.

The second order includes those who have advanced further in the variety of sciences, namely Cicero, Plutarch, Pliny, Vives, Gesner, Bodin, Patricius, Mazzon, Allatius, Mersennius, Donius, and others like them. The third and final order consists of those who, with their prodigious intellects, have refused to leave any field of study unexplored and any endeavor unattempted. They were equipped to handle everything, and excelled in each, a distinction formerly reserved for Democritus, Theophrastus, Varro, and in our own time, Erasmus, Buda, Picus, Fracastorius, Scaligers, Casaubon, Grotius, Salmasius, Petavius, Patin, and, above all others, Hieronymus Cardanus.

While no one doubts that he was preeminent in his own field, I am convinced that he was the first and only man to be so thoroughly versed in everything that it seems as if nature intended to present an example of the greater breadth and immensity of knowledge that man has been able to attain thus far. For if we inquire into the talents of all the others, we shall see that many have only superimposed theology on their humanistic studies, some mathematics as well; some have knowledge of medicine and philosophy, others of Oriental languages or both branches of law; and again others, like Pico and Fracastoro, have displayed the extraordinary excellence of their genius in a few pages.

But we shall certainly find no one who had more sciences at his command, who penetrated deeper into them, or who illustrated them more fully by larger commentaries than Jerome Cardan. It is almost a miracle that he should have seen almost everything in all the sciences, that would have been worth his while to understand, whereas it would have been hardly possible to find even one man who had a thorough knowledge of his own subject. Certainly, in humanistic studies, in philosophy, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, history, metaphysics, moral politics, and other remote disciplines, he knew nothing that was worth knowing for the sake of accumulating knowledge.

And, pray, who will deny that a book on Proportions is worthy to be compared with the most beautiful inventions of the ancients? Who does not marvel at the Arithmetic, when he considers how many difficulties he overcame, difficulties that Villafranca, Lucas de Burgo, Stifelius, and Tartalea, hardly or even not at all, could cope with? Who does not see nature, expressed in all its ornamentation and beauty, in the books on Subtlety and Variety? Who does not prefer Cardan's commentaries on Ptolemy and Astronomical Aphorisms to those of Gauric, Iunctinus, Stofler, and other similar authors?

And who, in the praise of Nero's cargo, does not see that he had knowledge of the history of all times and places? Who would think that anything was missing from his books on wisdom and the Proxeneta that Machiavelli, Paruta, Bodinus, Septalius, and even Aristotle, Plato, and Xenophon could have known or invented? And if I were to mention his moral books, his medical books, and all the other books that cannot be easily categorized, how many treasures, dear God, could be uncovered and how many secrets could be revealed and used for the common good?

But one can understand this better by comparing Cardan with Julius Caesar Scaliger, his almost divine rival in intellect. Although Scaliger appeared on the scene with greater pomp and splendor, and had a mind truly pregnant with heroic thoughts and capable of the highest things, he confined himself within the confines of the humanities, philosophy, and medicine, leaving Cardan the freedom to explore all other disciplines that he was more interested in. And for this reason, Cardan is not at all discredited by the fact that these noble exercises are daily handled, as it can be wiped away by fair-minded judges or with minimal effort.

Firstly, who can tolerate Scaliger having published his Exercises three years after the second edition of Books on Subtlety, without having wanted to see it or spared the mistakes that had been corrected by Cardano with such diligence, lest he lose the fruit of his labor? Furthermore, who does not know that Cardano, in the first action against the Calumniator of Books on Subtlety, so refuted all of his barbs, dissolved objections, and broke accusations that there should be no reason to suppose any would remain from such a great number?

For Cardano was a man who believed nothing human to be foreign to him: nor is it so surprising that he erred, but it is much more worthy of admiration that he hit upon so few and minor errors. Indeed, I would even dare to wager that Scaliger left behind many more mistakes in his Exercises than the ones he spent nine whole years haranguing against Cardano; and this was not due so much to a zeal for discovering the truth as to satisfy his insatiable desire to engage with all the leaders of letters and learning of his time.

For in his commentaries on Aristotle's De Animalibus, he injures Theodorus Gaza, a most innocent man, and one who with many expressions of keenness had striven to render the Greek into Latin, with what justice or by what right, I know not. In the same way, since he could not attack Erasmus under any other pretext, he pretends that he was importuned by the boys of the Paris Academy, who were under his direction, to enter into competition with Erasmus, though these boys not only did not suggest such a thing, but when they heard his first speech against Erasmus, defiled with mud and, what is worse, trampled it underfoot.

Finally, he provoked Fernelius not openly, but by certain secret insinuations and under a disguised name, so that he might not leave any of those whom he considered to be obstructing his light unharmed from his Quads, a man otherwise worthy, who, though he had published no other books than his Seven Books of Poetry, has been transmitted to posterity adorned with the highest and almost divine honors.

Furthermore, since Cardano's reputation was so great that he did not only annoy Julius Scaliger alone, it may not be inappropriate to defend him from others who have found him troublesome for much less serious reasons. For there have been some petty individuals who considered it objectionable that he should have written a history of his life and actions and composed so many books about his own books, at least five of which have been published at various times and places.

I remember not so long ago, when the distinguished philosopher of our time, Fortunio Liceti, wrote a history of himself, he was criticized for the same thing, as if such Philautia were so infamous and disgusting that, with the exception of these two authors, all others have tried to avoid it, as if it were worse than the barking of dogs and the hissing of snakes. But in fact, those who burden Cardano with such fabricated charges reveal only their own supine and incredible ignorance. For what was said first about his life should be criticized not only in him but also in Cornelius Sulla, Julius Caesar, Octavian, Quintus Catullus, Hadrian, Marcus Antoninus, Flavius Josephus, St. Augustine, Monluc, Thuane, Scaliger, Puteanus, and many others, whose example is so far from leading anyone into error that it modestly imitates it, especially since it is an outstanding work, full of memorable events and deeds, and brings considerable praise to itself.

The same must also be said of his own books, whose series, when they are numerous or about various topics, cannot be considered anything other than honorable and useful. For, besides serving as indices to avoid attributing to any author what is not his own, they also show which books have been published once or several times, and where, in what form, at what time, which have been published separately or together with others, which have been augmented, illustrated, corrected, and whether any final touches have been added to them or whether anything else can be expected from subsequent editions. All these things undoubtedly bring the greatest convenience and pleasure to all those who enjoy the most honest pleasures of books.

Therefore, since Galen had already realized this, he wrote commentaries on his own books for two people who are still extant, Bassus and Eugenius. Without these commentaries, we would hardly have the names of two hundred or more of his books, which burned in Rome together with the Temple of Peace. Following his example, Saint Augustine, Dionysius the Carthusian, Erasmus, Gesner, Friedrich Nausea, Johannes Cochlaeus, Michael Neander, Nicolaus Nancelius, Johannes Caius, Philippe Bosquier, Henri Estienne, Jacques Auzoulius, Francesco Maurolycus, Laurembergius, Genebrard, Campanella, Schioppius, Frederick Cardinal Borromeo, Annaeus Rulmanus, Erycius Puteanus, and just a few years ago, Fortunio Licetus, all of them, with separate books and designed for that purpose, embraced the history of their own works, leaving aside others who also had their own account of their books, although with a lesser apparatus and often with only a naked index or a letter written to a friend on this subject, as Porta, Taurellus, Bellaius, Tomasinus, Champerius, Seuertius, Nouarinus, Caneuarius, Durastantes, Franciscus Mirandulanus, and many others, such as Cardan, who have more witnesses and examples than the weapons of the envious can provide against this effort to defend their own literary history. On the contrary, they should be suffused with shame for accusing a man who relied on so many distinguished authorities, as if he could not show any support for himself, when he lacked both reason and witnesses and authority.

Furthermore, this provided a great opportunity for Cardan's rivals and especially his sworn enemies in astrology to attack him more freely, since he observed almost nothing of these events that subsequently occurred, neither in his own natal theme nor in those proposed for John the Baptist's son, Aimari Ranconeti, or Edward VI, King of England, and other charts. For he did not predict for himself imprisonment, hanging for his son, violent death for Ranconeti, or Edward's short life, but rather direct contraries. Therefore, since Joseph Scaliger and later Alexander de Angelis, who tries mainly by this means to uproot astrological divinations, have already deserved ridicule, there is no need to dwell longer on this same subject. Instead, what needs to be shaken off is how it is possible that the principal astrologers, trained with so many rules and observations, know nothing in the art that is so obscure, difficult, or hidden that they have not made it passable for themselves, and often use their predictions with less accuracy than old madwomen, senile old men, foolish and fatuous people, whom we often see penetrating into future and hidden matters.

For what Alexander de Angelis primarily accuses Cardan of, as the greatest restorer of astrological vanity, should be said all the more about mediocre and Patellarian astrologers. I remember seeing some annual ephemerides of Luca Gaurico in Italy, in which, because of the freedom of writing that was then in vogue, the greatest successes or most serious losses were threatened for each of the European princes, yet nothing subsequently happened as he had predicted. And would that Henry II, whom he had said would be given up to the fates only in extreme old age and with a very peaceful illness, had not been taken from us by such a flourishing age and such a sharp, headlong fate?

On the other hand, the Plebeian prophets, such as the French Michael Nostradamus, the Italian Savonarola, the English Merlin Caledonius, the Germans Lolhardus and Joachimus, and the Portuguese Bandarra Calceolarius, and indeed many old people and ignorant men from all nations, as I said before, have had such certain foreknowledge of future events that the Pythia who speaks from the tripod of Phoebus and laurel could hardly have pronounced them more confidently or accurately. However, for many reasons, this is undoubtedly not always the case, and my advice here is primarily to touch on the fact that false arts can never produce true predictions, except by some chance, or by skill or by a special temperament, which are all beyond art. Moreover, it has been demonstrated by so many arguments of men of all praise for their learning and most accomplished intelligence that astrology is not the least among the false and futile sciences that often delude people's minds, so anyone who holds a contrary opinion does not seem to have made great progress in acquiring wisdom and good sense.

However, since this is the case, Cardanus should not be blamed for not achieving more accuracy in his predictions where his art could not provide assistance. Especially since he used such acumen, supported by chance and his own mental temperament, that he made himself not useless or futile in most genitures. But since that extraordinary, rare, and exceptional force of the mind that manifests itself in great and admirable actions in man, prompted Cardanus to penetrate the secrets of all sciences, and to explain them with greater ease, sharper judgment, and more excellence than anyone ever did before, he could not, like others who only receive predictions of future events from his mental impetus, pronounce on the death of his son or Aimari Ranconeti or others, as Nostradamus perhaps did. I say Nostradamus because he is an example to us, and when astrologers offer something certain, it was not achieved by the benefit of their art, but rather by that orgasm of humor, which Nostradamus himself calls divine and most favorable to himself, as he testifies in his quatrains:

"I predict terrible things, full of divine power:
Wars, famine, turmoil, the contagious spread of disease,
Floods and heat waves, lands and seas stained with blood,
The fates of great men, both their peace and their lives."

Thus, John Amatus Chauigneus translated it from the French language, although another quatrain on the same subject is still available. Since it cannot be conveniently translated into Latin, it is better to consult it in the same words in which it was pronounced by the author at the beginning of the first century. Otherwise, if it is attributed to Palmistry, because Bartholomaeus Cocles left a list of 45 men, as Cardanus says, who were supposed to die violently, as it happened later: if it is attributed to Nomenclature, because Hannibal Raimundus indicated which of two sick or dueling opponents would die first: if it is attributed to Geomancy, because Catanus established which end of the business should not be terminated: if it is attributed to Scriptural interpretation, because Prosper Aldorisius elicited various emotional movements and natural tendencies from its diversity: and finally, if it is attributed to other forms of divination, because the old women find the stolen property, predict future spouses, and diseases with the lyre and merobibae.

If we do not return to the common cause of all these divinations, a rather deceitful sequence of rules of these frivolous disciplines will be true, as much as astrology is true. Indeed, after saying this, I do not know what could be said more foolish and absurd. Finally, what caused the greatest envy for Cardano and was agitated with more fervor by all the good people, depending on how much they were devoted to religion, is the birth of our Lord Jesus Christ, explained by him according to the rules of his art, no differently than if it had been done by a certain man. For Thuanus, this is a testimony of extreme madness, or rather impious audacity; but the words of the latter, from the preface to Manilius, are so explicit that I cannot help but laugh when I see this oracle of our time speaking so childishly. He said, "Listen to the subtlety of our age, forty-four years ago, there was a cymbal of genethliacs who produced the theme of our Lord Jesus Christ and reasoned that everything that happened to him must have happened by the placement of the stars." Is this more impious or a joke that even subjects the Lord of the stars to the stars and thinks that he was born at that time, which is still in dispute, so that vanity competes with impiety? But do you really call this the subtlety of our age, which was held among astronomers three hundred years or more before our time?

It seems that you have been so busy reading good books that you have missed the knowledge of many who, although they may be like you and devoid of all good fruit, could have removed an outstanding blot of ignorance and neglect from you if they had only been known to you by their title. For who can bear to see Cardano accused of his impious vanity for devising the nativity theme of our Lord Jesus Christ, which Tyberius Russilianus Sextus Calaber had already presented in the preceding century in three different schemes in his Apology, as he called it, against the Cucullati, who had condemned him as if he held twelve heretical views out of four hundred propositions that he had publicly assumed to defend at Bologna, Florence, and Padua? This one in particular—that Christ, with respect to the elemental composition of his body, was subject to the stars, and that his birth and great prophethood, as well as what happened to his body, especially the violent type of his death, were announced by the stars—is inconsistent. For Tycho Brahe to defend this conclusion along with others, he published a book under the title mentioned above while Leo X was in power. In it, he narrated three themes of Christ's birth according to the opinions of three different learned doctors so clearly that it is amazing that Cardano had to rely on him for his calculations and collections afterward.

However, not even Tycho Brahe, with no other authority to rely on, dared to undertake such a great sacrilege. Cardinal Peter of Ailly, Archbishop of Cambrai, who died during the time of Martin V, not only argued that the birth of Christ could be foreseen through astrological observations but also proposed a celestial scheme of the same birth in the Elucidarium of Astronomical Concord with Theological and Historical Truth. The older Albertus Magnus, Bishop of Regensburg, also spoke about it in his astronomical mirror, saying, "We now know that our Lord Jesus Christ was born when the sign of the Virgin was ascending, not because he was subject to motion or desired by those born under that sign, who created the stars themselves, but because when he stretched out the heavens like a parchment and formed a book of unity, he did not want the letters of that book to be lacking, which were written in the book of eternity according to his providence. It was not the shape of the heavens that caused him to be born, but the signification; in fact, he himself was the true cause of why the manner of his wonderful birth was signified by the heavens."

What more? Even Albohazen, or if you prefer, Albohazar, although he was a Muslim, said many things about Christ that were not expressed by other Arabs; and among other things, he maintained that he was born under the first aspect of the Virgin. Although Roger Bacon left a doubt after the words of Albohazen, as translated into Latin by Hermannus Dalmata, whether the subject of Christ the Lord's or his blessed mother's nativity was recorded in Arabic letters, for the words of Bacon are from his third work that he gave to Clement V, the intention being that the Blessed Virgin has a figure and image below the first ten degrees of Virgo, and that she was born when the sun is in Virgo. This is marked on the calendar, and that she nursed her son Jesus Christ on the land of the Hebrews.

It also seems that the Christian author of the book of Vetula held this opinion, which some wrongly attribute to Ovid. For in the forty-sixth and last chapter, he addresses the Virgin as follows:

"O happy Virgin, O Virgin signified
By the stars where Spica shines, who will grant me
To live, that I may be a herald of your praises."

But whatever is finally decided about this difficulty, it is certain that the genesis of our Savior was described by four other very weighty authors before Cardano thought to write about it. Therefore, I cannot help but wonder that those two great scholars, Thuane and Scaliger, who could have at least learned from Bacon, Pico Mirandola, or Robert Holkot's commentaries on the Wisdom of Solomon, did not see or hear of it. It is unfair to attack Cardano so harshly as if he were the first to commit the crime of submitting Christ to false and imaginary images of the stars when others had done so before him. He is only to blame for following the example of other great men.

However, it is clear how careful Cardano was, as he knew for certain that the nativity of Christ had been described by Alliacensis and Tyberio Russiliano, and he could not have been ignorant of what Pico, Albumasar, and Bacon had said about them. Nevertheless, he never mentioned them, so that he could persuade the literati that it was his own invention. When his wish was fulfilled, it was as if he had cast it into the fire, which Laurentius Valla had said did not exist under the moon's surface, but he still refused to mention even the slightest reference to those authors, even when urged by his rivals and when he was in danger of losing his life. He preferred to spread rumors of his own impiety than to lose the glory he had gained from such a bold act. And these are the things by which I convinced myself that the weapons of calumny, which had been spread against the books of Cardano and his outrageous audacity, both by the rival Scaliger and by others, could be repelled.

Now it remains for me to investigate, by carefully inspecting each of his works, what kind of writer Cardano was, and with what style, method, and ease he wrote his various treatises. He used a free, equal, and straightforward style, not elaborate or artificial, such as is seen in the works of Fernel and Scaliger. However, it is by no means neglected or corrupted, as some philosophers and physicians, who are commonly called barbarians because of their impure language, have done. He also sometimes rises, plays, wanders, and indulges in pleasures and delights, including the most pleasant pleasures of love.

As an example, I will quote what he said in chapter 7 of book 2 of his work on poisons, regarding the topic of sexual intercourse, which is not considered shameful by those who have never engaged in shameful acts. Sexual intercourse is a great thing, as it is necessary for the preservation of the species, and therefore it is adorned in many ways by the natural desire for it. Where there is no end to the goal, there is no limit to pleasure. There is pleasure in the act of intercourse, in the seduction that leads up to it, in the moment of climax, in the memory of it, and even in the pain and pleasure that it causes afterward. Whether one is ashamed or offers oneself willingly, the pleasures are almost equal. The very form, pursuit, mode, erection, and ejaculation of semen are all equally pleasurable, and everything that stimulates desire is enjoyable. If one is in the house, one enjoys comfort and games; if outside, one enjoys stealing. If one is of lowly condition, one enjoys the freedom to do whatever one wishes; if noble, one enjoys being loved by one's partner. If the affair is public, one enjoys sharing one's happiness with others; if it is private, one enjoys having more than is believed.

It is not surprising, therefore, that the seas and the land are disturbed by all these spells, love potions, and poisons, and that so many emotions and bodily and mental passions are established. But let us now turn to Scaliger's Exercises, in which, in the masters of oratory and elegance, I will offer a more charming little flower of speech and in return extend an herb to the one who presents it, and concede that Cardanus was not infrequently, and wherever he wished, the most eloquent. Cardanus was therefore not so far from eloquence that in all his prefaces, in encomiums on various subjects, and in similar pamphlets that desired ornamentation of speech, he provided it most abundantly. In other works, when he was forced to use barbaric and impure words, he always did so with a prefatory apology.

Hence, in his Arithmetic, he says, "Do not be surprised, kind reader, that I have made this work minimal, let alone elegant, because it would have been easier for me to write in my own way than to satisfy the wishes of others, but so that the difficulty of the language, which tends to deter learned men from reading, as it is polished in pure Roman style, would not deter them from such a difficult work." Similarly, in his Commentaries on Ptolemy, he rejected the use of certain words because they were not marked by the notes of approved and genuine Latin. Scaliger, too, burned certain deeper marks of barbarism in the Action against the Slanderer, and in chapter 39 of his Life, he indicates that he did not completely abandon the care of his style. However, he could not and perhaps should not have brought more in such a large number of works, in order to avoid, as stated above, confusion and obscurity, which almost always accompany those addicted to the study of eloquence.

And this was precisely the reason why Mercurialis, in his work on gymnastics and in the books he wrote for more advanced intellects, pursued the pleasures of refined language, which he later deliberately neglected when he taught in schools and wrote those books which he knew would not be of much use to more polished minds. In order to avoid this inconvenience, Cardanus used a style that was in between lofty and low, and made it so much his own that he would not teach anything that he could not say with great ease and pleasure, whether in free speech or in verse, as he used in the elegy on his son's death and in certain earthstichs.

From this style, which was not unpleasant, vast, disjointed, dry, or inflated, but rather even and clear, flowed a great part of his learning, which was also clear, easy, and delightful. It was not due to his eloquence that Cardanus is considered by some to have been obscure, impeded, and sometimes even tedious in certain books, but rather for three or four other reasons which, to pursue in detail, would perhaps be beside our purpose, since they all depend on his immense learning, which I maintain was peculiar to Cardanus both formerly and especially now. For he could not refrain from using a variety of aids, often different from that learning itself, and external like so many soldiers, whenever he needed to explain some difficulty.

Thus, he mixed without distinction Geometry with Physics, Astronomy with Medicine, Ethics with Metaphysics, Politics with History, Human affairs with Divine, and the highest things with the lowest, whenever either impulse or the demand for digging out the truth through many meanders required it. And he could do this in two ways, not only by using the method familiar to Plato, Galen, and Aristotle, that is, by establishing physical or medical conclusions with numbers or some geometric examples, but also by saying many things that are incidental and bringing forth long dissertations, not altogether irrelevant to the matter at hand, but which no one would expect to arise from the discussion.

For who in Arithmetic would seek those excellent discourses on the wondrous properties of numbers, on the motion of planes, on the creation of things, on the Tower of Babel, on the Platonic duration of the world and its changes, on the degrees, as they call them, of medicines, and on other such matters? Who in Dialectics would pass judgment on historians and letter-writers? Who in his comments on Aliments would explain three things that are most difficult to understand? Who, in other places, would venture so many weighty excursions on various subjects? If I were to attempt to enumerate them all, I would sooner run out of days than of words, for what kind and how frequent are they in his books on the Utility of taking things from adversity? How many in his Medical works? How many in his historical works? How many, even in the single letter he wrote to Thaddaeus Duna, to whom he frequently sends missives about his own affairs? And for no other purpose, as he admits somewhere, than to furnish more copy for the printers, with whom he had previously agreed on their price; and in this way he writes not less for fame than for his livelihood, and indeed, since he could not be blamed for it, since he had no more honorable way to support his poverty, he is even more commendable than Galen, who did not bring annoyance to his readers, not because he was enticed by money or compelled by need, but because of a defect innate in himself and his nation, and expressed in his Asiatic eloquence.

Furthermore, it was a familiar habit of Cardano's to sometimes abbreviate his studies and assume that his readers were familiar with many things he knew and had experienced. He would not explain every aspect of his divisions or connect them with intermediate steps, which were considered most necessary and appropriate for discussion. His sharp mind and analytical abilities pervaded everywhere and sought arguments by jumping through various intermediate steps that were not explained at that time, making the subsequent discussion far more difficult, especially as seen in his books on the contradictions of medical practitioners and in his commentaries on food, which for this reason have discouraged inexperienced readers from reading them.

Finally, the difficulty of the subject matter itself often caused the obscurity that many criticized in Cardano. However, this criticism is unjust, since no philosopher who has attempted to cover many things at once and write on various subjects, not even Aristotle, Theophrastus, Alexander, Themistius, Averroes, or Plotinus, could avoid this flaw, if it can be called a flaw. According to Cardano, even Plato, who is considered the easiest to understand, is more obscure than all the others. However, none of these things prevent someone who looks at Cardanus as a whole, who explores each of his books, who sifts through his mind brimming with the most beautiful ideas, as if it were an emporium of all the nebulous sciences, from not being able to greatly appreciate the vast amount of writings, the diverse and manifold readings, the diligent investigation of things, and the great adornment of speech and thoughts that he possesses, and from not equally admiring his remarkable memory and his sagacity, and his judgment that is always correct, equal, and firm in such a diversity of things.

For even though in some cases, as the most learned Thuanus correctly observes, he may seem to be more intelligent than a man, and in most cases less so than a child, such inequality is like dregs and lees, from which the most excellent liquors cannot be preserved, so far from being able to sell his books at a lower price because of those faults. In fact, nothing hindered Cardanus, whose books are like the most fruitful offspring of a luxuriant intellect, from immediately entrusting them to the printers' presses, while he himself, with a remarkable agility of mind, and with promptness in perceiving things that are diverse, obscure, and completely at odds with each other, seems to have surpassed all the calculations of Europe and all the glory of writers.

Therefore, lest anyone be able to doubt any further, I will list how many and which books Cardano gained fame and reputation from, and likewise, by a careful review of them, I will render my verdict on Cardano. I will first make a list and indicate the manner of their publication, which should be preferred to all others in a well-stocked and well-furnished library. Then, I will classify them all into specific groups so that whenever the printers wish to undertake the complete publication of any of them, they can do it more easily and with greater elegance. Finally, I will include a catalog of Cardano's manuscripts, which have come to my attention, so that just as I, by good fortune, have obtained some of them and have made them public property, and will continue to do so if God assists me in the future, so too may it be open to everyone else to show their diligence in exploring such treasures for the benefit of all.

Therefore, the first Catalogue that is of published works contains books of various paper complications, not of a single format; so that some are in an expanded paper, others in a folded one twice or more, and from that diversity, some are larger or smaller, which will be called later in folio, quarto, octavo, duodecimo or sextodecimo, with the booksellers for the sake of brevity and convenience.

The books of Cardano that are to be held in a larger format are the following:

"De proportionibus numerorum, motuum, ponderum, sonorum, etc.," along with two additional books, one on the great art or the rules of algebra, which was previously published separately in Nuremberg in folio in 1545, and the other on the Alizaregula, printed in Basel in 1570 by the Henricus Petrinus printing house in the month of March.

Commentaries on Claudius Ptolemy's "Indiciis de Astrorum" or, as commonly called, "quadripartitae constructionis libros IV," along with booklets on the qualities of the seven wandering stars, the twelve genitures, the interrogations, and Conrad Dasypodius's tables in four books on the predictions of Ptolemy, as well as a description of the Strasbourg clock. Published in Basel by the same printer in September 1578.

However, when the Genesis of our Saviour was read in the Lyon edition and in another larger paper edition previously made in Basel, it was not without causing great indignation. Therefore, it was removed from the latter edition, but not by anyone's foolishness, rather for the best. For this passage from the eighth chapter of the second book of Aristotle's Politics offended not only chaste but also devout minds. That's why Leonardus Aretinus refused to translate it into Latin, although Perionius, Sepulveda, Gifanius, and other interpreters later did not hesitate to retain it. Similarly, another passage from the latter book of Hippocrates on popular diseases, which was not approved by Valesius and was not even considered worthy of that interpretation, was removed with the notes that he used to illuminate all the books of the Epidemics.

"De subtilitate libri XXI," along with the "Cure Apologia aduersus horum librorum calumniatorem," were first published in octavo in various places by the same Henricus Petrus in Basel in 1582. They were later republished in 1611 in Basel, with the same Apology against Scaliger.

"De rerum varietate libri XVII," published in Basel by the same printer in 1581, along with other works on subtlety, was often printed in octavo.

In Basel, at the same publishing house, several works were published:

1. Commentaries on the Seven Aphorisms of Hippocrates, as well as on the differences, prevention, and treatment of poisons and plagues, in three books, and a book on the observation of seasons in medicine, in 1564.

2. A most complete commentary on Hippocrates' Prognostics and the books on seven-month and eight-month childbirths, along with seven recommendations for very diverse serious illnesses, in 1568.

3. Commentaries on Hippocrates' books on air, places, and waters, along with a speech on the ignorance of doctors, three recommendations, and a small booklet on lightning by Giovanni Battista Cardano, in 1570.

4. Some works that are extremely useful for those practicing medicine, namely on water and ether, on Cyna root, on the praise of medicine, and on three recommendations, as well as the first legal action against the calumniator of the works on subtlety, in 1569. However, since all of these works, except for the legal action against Scaliger which was printed with the works on subtlety, were later compiled by Cardano into two volumes of medical works, about which we shall speak later, anyone who wishes to have this volume in folio can do so without any loss, in my opinion.

5. Four books on maintaining health and prolonging life by Rudolph Goclenius, in Basel at the same publishing house in 1582.

Books found in the Quarto:
Five astronomical booklets:

1. On the supplement to the almanac.

2. On the restriction of time.

3. On the judgments of nativities.

4. On revolutions.

5. On one hundred examples of nativities with segments from seven astronomical aphorisms. Nuremberg, published by Johann Petreius in 1547. The first two booklets, along with the incomplete fifth, had been published earlier by Petreius in 1543, and before that in Milan, printed by the author himself with the assistance of a printer, as at that time printing materials were scarce, and it was necessary for these most accurate publications to come to light.

Two books of contradictory medical opinions, each containing one hundred and eight contradictions, with additional booklets on Sarzaparilla, Cyna root, and advice for vague pain, published in Lyon by Sebastian Gryphius in 1548. They were also published in Paris in 1546 by Jacob Macaeus in octavo, along with a booklet of contradictions collected by Peletarius from Lacuna. It is also certain that they were published in Venice, but I have not been able to see them myself.

Theonoston or Dialogue on prolonging life and preserving health, edited by Fabricio Coccanari in Rome, published by Giovanni Battista Robletti in 1617.

Four books explaining all types of dreams called "Synesiorum Somniorum," along with small works about his own books, remarkable cures, and predictions; Nero's eulogy; Geometry's eulogy; Actio in Thessalicum Maedicum; De Secretis; De Gemmis & Coloribus; two dialogues, William Sine on death and Timaeus on human advice; De Minimis & Propinquis; De Summo Bono; published in Basel by Heinrich Petri in 1562. The eulogies of Nero and Geometry were subsequently published in the second part of Amphitheatri Sapientiae Socraticae Ioco-Seriae by Caspar Dornau; first, in Lotichius's notes on Petronius in the second volume; and separately in a small and elegant volume published in Leiden.

Five books about wisdom that explain the entire course of human life and the way of living, three books about consolation, and Ephemerus or books about his own books, published in Nuremberg by Johann Petreius in 1544 and later in Geneva in 1624 by Pierre and Jacques Chouet, along with two books by the very learned and eloquent Peter Alcyonius about exile. Jerome Scotus had also published books about consolation separately in Venice in 1542.

The following can only be found in the octavo:
Practical Arithmetic, and singular measurement. Milan, published by Giovanni Antonio Castellione for Bernardino Caluscio in 1539.

A book titled "On the Immortality of the Soul" published in Lyon by Sébastien Gryphe in 1545.

Commentaries on Hippocrates' book "On Aliment," delivered while teaching at Bologna on general medicine, published in Rome by the heirs of Antonio Blado in 1574 and in Basel by Sebastian Henricus Petri in March 1582.

A booklet titled "An Examination of Hippocrates' 22 Patients," edited by Cardano when he was 74 years old, published in Rome by the same heirs of Camerales printers in 1575.

A book titled "On the Misuse of Modern Physicians in Treating Illnesses," containing one hundred of their errors and another on the harm caused by simple medicines, published in Venice by Girolamo Scotto in 1545. Scotto had previously attempted to publish the same book, containing only sixty-six errors, but it was so deformed by mistakes that Cardano, in the preface to the second edition, confessed to feeling ashamed, saying that he recognized over three hundred errors of his own in the book, in addition to those made by the printers. Nevertheless, it was from this weak beginning that Cardano, a famous and widely known figure, launched his literary career. This was the first book he ever published, and it was only on its third attempt that it was reprinted in Paris in 1565, in the house of Rorillius, as will be discussed later.

De Causis signis, ac locis morborum liber - "On the Causes, Signs, and Places of Diseases" - published in Basel by Sebastian Henric Petri in 1583.

Opuscula Medica & Philosophica in duos tomos diuisa - "Medical and Philosophical Works Divided into Two Volumes" - the first volume contains "Ars medendi parva" (The Art of Healing), "Consilia pro difficultate spirandi" (Advice for Difficulty in Breathing), "Ventriculi dolore" (On Stomach Pain), "Surditare" (On Deafness), "Sanguinis fluxu" (On Blood Flow), "Lepra" (On Leprosy), "Medicinae & Podagrae encomia" (Praise of Medicine and Gout), and "Apologia in Andream Camutium" (Apology for Andrea Camuto). The second volume contains "Dialectica Hyperchen" (Hyperchen's Dialectic), "De Socratis studio" (On the Study of Socrates), "Antigorgias" (Against Gorgias), "De Aqua" (On Water), "Aethere" (On Ether), and "Cyna radice" (On Hellebore). It was published in Basel in two volumes by Henric Petri in 1566. "Consilia, Medicinae encomium, & libri de Aqua & Aethere" were previously published in 1569 in a folio edition in Basel. The book "De Cyna radice" is also included in the same volume, along with "contradicentium" at the end of the second book and in the collection of authors on venereal disease. Lastly, "Encomium Podagrae" (In Praise of Gout), edited together with "Loselio de Podagra," was published in Leiden in 1639.

Opuscula Medica Senilia in IV. libros tributa - "Medical Works in Four Books" - the first book is "De Dentibus" (On Teeth), the second is "De Rationali Curandi Ratione" (On the Rational Method of Healing), the third is "De Facultatibus Medicamenterum Praecipuè Purgantium" (On the Properties of Purging Medicines), and the fourth is "De Morbo Regio" (On the Royal Disease). It was published in Lyon at the expense of Laurent Durand in 1638, who had a copy of the manuscript from the highly learned and friendly Leon Allutius.

Method of Healing, consisting of 4 sections. The first section refutes the errors of recent medical practitioners, the second discusses the harmful effects of simple medicines, the third contains miraculous cures and predictions, and the fourth includes advice for treating various diseases. Published in Paris in the house of Rouillius, on the Jacobean street, under the sign of Concord, in 1565. Rouillius himself admits that nothing in these sections is not also found in Cardano's other published works. The first and second sections form a book on the misuse of medicine, while the third is found complete after the book on sleeplessness, and the fourth is supplied by the second volume of his other smaller works. Those who compare this book to others will not find it lacking in any way if they have access to the rest of Cardano's books.

Other works include:
"On the Benefits to be Gained from Adversity," consisting of 4 books; "Defenses for my Son Made Before the President of the Province"; "A Treatise on Abstaining from the Use of Foul-Smelling Foods," published in Basel by Henricus Petrus in August 1561; "A Book of Precepts for my Children," published in Paris by Thomas Blaise in 1635 from the library of Gabriel Nandaeus; "Letter from Messer Girolamo Cardano to All Young People Interested in Virtue and the Study of Laudable Disciplines," published in Bologna by Alessandro Bonaccio; "On My Own Books," published in Lyon by Guillaume Rouillius under the Venetian Shield in 1557; and "A Book on My Life," from the library of Gabriel Nandaeus, published in Paris by Jacques Villery in the Palace in 1643.

Finally, only in the twelfth (book) it is contained.

Finally, the book Proxenetae, seu de humanae sapientia liber was published in Lyon in 1627 by the Elzevir press. It was also published in the same format in Geneva in 1630 by Paul Marceau. It was republished again in 1633 by the Elzevir press, but in a smaller volume format. Therefore, all of Cardano's works consist of several books or volumes, at least as far as I have been able to observe after conducting extensive research in France and Italy. Unless someone, perhaps for the sake of a more impressive collection, wishes to have these works in their possession.

Some other works related to Cardano's writings include Thaddaeus Duni Locarnensis's medical letters, published in Zurich in 1592, which contain a long letter from Cardano with Thaddaeus's response. Also, Andrea Camutius's disputations, which refute 30 conclusions of the great Jerome Cardano, were published in Pavia in 1563. These disputations provide the same conclusions that Cardano proposed in Pavia in 1561 against the errors of Galen in his exposition of Hippocrates's Aphorisms.

The sought-after works include discussions on Archimedes and some other works by Nicolò Tartaglia, written in the common Italian language and published in Venice in quarto in 1605 and at other times. These contain many letters from Cardano on geometric and algebraic topics, which are as pointless to search for elsewhere as conclusions in Galen unless one looks for them in the books of Camutius and Tartaglia.

But since it is not insignificant, I recommend that along with Cardano's books On Subtlety, one should examine the Exercises of Julius Caesar Scaliger and the edition made by Michel de Vascosan in quarto in Lutetia in 1557, since it is the most correct and elegant of all.

I could also mention Richard le Blanc's interpretation of Cardano's On Subtlety, written in French, and published in quarto in Paris by Charles Langelie in 1556 and later in octavo. However, since several other interpretations of these works on subtlety and others could have been made, and I was unable to see them all due to the variety of European languages and the distances of the provinces where they are familiar, even if I had seen them, I did not think that it would be worth the great effort to bring them here. Therefore, I preferred to refrain from investigating or reviewing all of them.

Thus far, Gabriel Naudé.

End.

Testimonies

Cardanus could not live long enough to complete the commentaries he had carefully written about his life, passing away on the 4th day before the Kalends of May in the year 1576. Therefore, we present it here from the never sufficiently praised history of the illustrious man Jacob Aug. Thuani, along with a summary of several other more exquisite indications and testimonies about such a great man. For it would not only be putrid and empty to call those who daily praise Cardan to these meetings, but it would also be an immense labor, since there is no writer who does not admire and suspect Cardan, nor any art that he has not made more complete and decorated by his divine and almost unique talent.

Thuanus (Jacques-Auguste de Thou) to the year 1576, page 136, book 62, volume 4

Hieronymus Cardano, also known as Jerome Cardan, was a great mathematician and physician of Milan who died in Rome. His life was varied, as were his morals, and he wrote letters about himself that were unheard of in a man of letters, expressing simplicity or freedom of thought, and I would not wish to be more curious than that. In Rome, a few years before his death, we saw him walking with a different appearance than others, and we often admired him when the memory of a man so famous for his many writings came to mind. Yet, we did not notice anything in him that corresponded to such great fame. Therefore, we were all the more surprised by the harsh judgment of Julius Caesar Scaliger, who especially exercised his divine genius in his work on subtlety, carefully noting its unevenness—sometimes appearing more intelligent than a man, sometimes less intelligent than a child. In mathematics, he attempted many things and discovered many, and in jurisprudence, which is said to have gained the trust of many, he was able to deduce more reliable results than could be obtained by art alone. However, he suffered from extreme madness, or rather impious audacity, in his attempts to submit the true lord of the stars to the fabricated laws of the stars. Nevertheless, he did this out of the nature of our Savior, which he had inscribed. Finally, when he had not yet completed seventy-five years of age, as he had predicted, he is believed to have accelerated his death on the same day and year, namely the 22nd of September, for fear of being wrong. His body was laid to rest at the Church of Sant'Andrea delle Fratte in Rome, and later transferred to Milan and buried at the Church of San Marco in the family tomb.

In the first volume of Martinus Henricus's Questions, published in quarto in 1567 in Pavia, Book 3 has the following preface addressed to Hieronymus Cardanus, Professor of First Theories at the University of Bologna

Since I believed that it would be of great importance to me, as a credit to my studies, to inform you above all others, Cardan, a man distinguished not only for his knowledge of many and excellent arts but also for his eloquence, I thought it worthwhile, during my spare time from the duties of medicine, to gather together what I could find scattered here and there, and to offer them to you for your perusal, you who excel in all disciplines. I have never before sent you any of my writings or even a letter, out of fear that my erudition or any other virtue of mine would not be of such a kind that I could think it permissible to make myself known to you, the most learned man of our age. Your fame, spread everywhere, has crossed seas and surmounted the highest mountains. For your fame has long been established, and I believe that you can give brilliance to what is already known, grace to what is old, and authority to what is new. To sum up, your studies are highly regarded among the learned, and they honor you with great respect. All the scholars give you the honor that Saint Augustine claimed for himself among the canonical writers, that they might believe you are never wrong in your writing. There are six hundred scholastics everywhere who proclaim your unique ability and learning in the clearest of voices. What more can be said? In public and in private, at the University of Pavia, at the University of Bologna, and everywhere else, Cardan is extolled by the most learned men and is celebrated with the highest praise he deserves. Your intellectual splendor shines so brightly that it has spread throughout the world, and nothing can be added to your honor and glory. I congratulate you for possessing such a precious and outstanding intellect that you have rightly claimed the first place among the laudable minds, with an extraordinary and faithful memory that can articulate spontaneous thoughts, like a living stream, in which the heavenly and immortal light of nature so shines that you are not only compared to modern writers, but also to the ancient ones, and are acknowledged by almost all the scholars of learning. For as much as you excel in learning and eloquence among the writers of this age, they easily judge who read your writings diligently and carefully. Everyone confesses with one accord that all the virtues, all the seeds of disciplines, all the images and representations of all things are to be seen in your books, and that there exists in your volumes such great usefulness as can scarcely be found in all the abundance of Greek and Latin literature. Therefore, whether it be by heroic grandeur, variety and multiplicity of arguments, or by vain artifice of speech, or by a certain learned obscurity of more abstruse sentences, all the praise and dignity hitherto attributed to ancient writers are, in my opinion (let there be no envy in my words), justly attributed to you, a man endowed with an excellent natural genius and having embraced so many beautiful domains in your mind. For if you write on medicine, you portray Hippocrates with admirable wisdom and probity, the gravest author of medicine Galen, and the remarkably skilled healer Avicenna, the most proven Mesue, the subtle Averroes, and almost countless others, without tedium. If you write philosophically, you endow Plato, born of a certain providential gift, and Aristotle, an outstanding philosopher of great intelligence, learning, eloquence, expertise, and prudence, whom posterity justly admires. You mention the lucid Themistius, the sharp and acute Averroes, and all the other most eminent and illustrious philosophers. You excel in the knowledge of history, and you are adept in theology and mathematics. In my opinion, there is no one in this age who can match you. And if my judgment in this matter does not carry enough weight with you, all those I know among the experts of this art in Italy testify the same. Not only do you fully understand all these lofty subjects, but you are also very familiar with the authors themselves, and have all their books at your fingertips. For, most observant teacher, we have the most reliable witnesses to this fact, and it would be superfluous to list them all here. Indeed, to finally conclude, wherever I reside, wherever I travel, I hear Cardano celebrated with the most illustrious voice, surrounded by the fame of his excellence, extolled for his venerable and admirable knowledge, adored like a god, and praised to the heavens. Therefore, I seem to have made my life and my breath profitable, for I have seen this divinity, I have had Cardano as my teacher, whom no age has been more learned than, after Hippocrates, Galen, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Fabius: who surpasses them in divine and human teachings and in admirable eloquence. Therefore, since you are known everywhere as the most famous, and worthy to be known throughout the world and celebrated by posterity, we dedicate to you a part of our labors, which we have written with an imprudent and excessive hand, still crude and unpolished. It is at your discretion to either publish or suppress them; if they succeed, I will not take credit or blame for it, but if not, your judgment will be evaluated in both respects. For I know that, with your critical eye, you will easily avoid the sting of slanderers, and under your proclamation, like the shield of Pallas, they will become invulnerable to rivals. So, I trust in your judgment, and with the hope that you will encourage me to write, as they say, with a full wax tablet, and by igniting the sparks of good hope, make me much more enthusiastic than before. Farewell, ornament of the world, glory of this age, and love your disciple from the heart. From Corti solonae, the Ides of January.

PREFACE OF JULIUS CAESAR SCALIGER to the 16 books of his Exoteric Exercises

These were written against Cardano's excellent work on diversity, as he hinted more than once. It was published along with other letters and speeches by the same Scaliger in Toulouse in 1621, from the manuscript of the very famous Maulsac.

After my fate had been so cruel as to favor me so wretchedly, such that my personal glory was combined with the bitterness of public mourning, and such a dire calamity had followed my outstanding and dutiful efforts, I did not think it fitting that I should allow myself to witness the sorrow that Hieronymus Cardanus would suffer from my slight chastisements without leaving behind a testament to posterity. Although I thought that his life might be a terror to me, yet his merits in all kinds of literature were so great that even I, who profess to be one of his fellow citizens, owed the common utility of all to my own interests.

For the republic of letters has been deprived of a man of the greatest and incomparable worth and has suffered a loss that perhaps no future age can repair. Although I am a private individual and a witness and even, by the immortal gods, a laudator of my own writings—since he approved them in such a way that he could rely solely on their decline for all hope of his defense, in despair of his power, in ignorance of his own strength, which was so great that no method, no reason, could have escaped him, by which my chastisements could not be compared to the celebrity of his name. And he was such a great man that he was able to demonstrate to students that he held the same opinions as I did, even though I had written as if they were contrary, if he thought they were good.

But if he held a different view, he would sometimes use the same mental presence to strengthen what he had decided, just as he had decided it, and which he judged could be strengthened. As for me, who had written to that man with such intention and hope—whom I would indeed publicly proclaim to be the most noble and learned of all mortals—so that I might trust myself to be invincible to him: who does not see that I had expected from his life hard-won praise on account of assents, not ignoble rest on account of his death, as if deserting the cause?

Indeed, it would have been possible to enjoy the kindness and generosity of this most illustrious man, whom I had known to be most resolute and confident in his own greatness. For he, as he was the most humane of all, was easily summoned to the common laws of friendship, even by the simplest of letters. But for me, who had thrown away my courage in all dangers after long battles, who had almost been worn out in constant disputations and almost consumed in long hours of writing, it is not very likely that I would have been so supine in debating such a great hero in such a conflict, with so much dust and drowsiness, and have coveted victory.

Not only does it need to be absent from rationality and the opinion of discerning people, but it also needs to be absent from any usefulness of my name. For my mind always adhered to the belief that any human being (since we are almost nothing) can err to such an extent as to claim that it is permissible for oneself to do so. And if this happens to even the most accomplished person, if it has happened to me often and sometimes to others, those slips should not be attributed to the census of errors, unless someone wants to continue to defend them afterwards. For persistence must be confessed as obstinacy, and humanity as cruelty.

For it is not a mistake when someone loses their temper a little, but if they defend their own fault by infamous means. Therefore, if during his lifetime my efforts had achieved silence from a sense of duty, what could have been more honorable for me? Indeed, he would have received me with the humblest of assents as a teacher or father. But if he had brought the discussion back to a more stubborn dispute, how many now do not understand that, from the previous agitation of the mind, it would lead him closer to insanity?

That which that divine man had perceived most keenly, which he could not bear, he bore. For he could not bring constancy of mind to living, but he could bring it to dying, which he did bear; he did not bear, however, our sharing of minds and judgments for the public benefit of scholars. Therefore, I lament my role, in that I had undertaken most brilliant arguments for this battle, had most explicit explanations for the conflict, and had hoped for victory that not even a constant man could have hoped for (who could have expected such an outcome?). Nor could a brave man desire it. The praise of this is completely placed in the praise of the enemy.

But I truly lament the fate of the entire republic, whose causes of sorrow the common people of scholars can indeed grasp according to their understanding, but in no way can the merits of that divine man. For in a learned person, three parts must excel altogether: integrity of character and civility, diverse and extensive erudition, and the highest intellect combined with the sharpest judgment. He had carried these three points so fully that he seemed to have been made by nature alone for himself alone, and for everyone. No one was found to be more humane, even with the least significant, no one more prepared for all situations with the greatest of men.

The king's gentleness, the popular elevation of the soul, not only of all hours, but also of all places, all men, all fortunes of man. As for the matter at hand, let us consider the whole world of scholars in this consummately happy age: each person will be celebrated for their own merits, but only one or two will have been devoted to philosophy. However, he had so perfectly united the most profound mysteries of nature and divinity with the humanities, and had explained them so eloquently, that it seemed he had done nothing else throughout his whole life.

He was truly a great man, even if he had accomplished nothing else. But if we consider his innate brilliance, his fiery power in all things, equal to the greatest and the smallest, his laborious diligence, or his unwavering constancy, it would be closer to impudence for someone to dare to compare himself to him. Therefore, it was not a hostile spirit, whose traces I did not even know, nor envy, which had never even touched my shadow, but rather so many and such illustrious reasons for his great accomplishments led me to feel something about them.

After completing the subtle Commentaries, which were like an appendix to his earlier works, the most learned book on the Variety of Things emerged. And immediately, before anything had been reported about his death, I myself, following his example, had compiled a summary of those works in just three days. After I learned of his passing, I compiled a book to support his work, just as he would have wanted if he had ever needed to discuss his work with me or another learned man.

The Same Author's Preface to the Book On Subtlety, Addressed to Hieronymus Cardanus

The splendor and magnitude of your name, Hieronymus Cardanus, could have incited even the laziest person to slander, if we all did not know that you wished to join your glory not only with public usefulness, but also with the praise of individuals. Therefore, it was possible for us to enjoy leisure far from all the strife of study and to keep our minds, as it were, in a fortress of truth that you had built for posterity with great works. For there was no shortage of carefully chosen observations from almost limitless reading, and there was also remarkable intellectual power to grasp the smallest details of all sciences. An extremely sharp judgment, which I am accustomed to call the soul of wisdom, was also present.

As I carefully read your discussions in which you were knowledgeable about medical controversies, it occurred to me that we should not only be grateful to you for things that were lacking in the ancient authors, but also that we should strive for much more writing, and that what you had written should come into our hands. In this matter, we were inflamed with such a strong desire, and fortune has been so kind to us. You discussed the most subtle inventions and judgments on subtlety that it seems nothing else can be required in the whole of nature. For the book of Philo on the World, relying on ancestral stories, deals too little with our philosophy. The commentary of M.T. on the universe has suffered from the injustice of times. Apuleius' similar attempt was distorted by the author's ignorance or carelessness.

That single work which is attributed to Aristotle's name by the inscription of the same god sustained the dignity of the whole nature, which could be grasped by human understanding. For when that philosopher had considered the highest heights, you did not so much set out to imitate him as to compete with his diligence and greatness, as if there were rewards of glory set before you. Indeed, when I had observed these books, full of various learning and the greatest intellect, of immense labor, I was led to the opinion that only a very small amount of knowledge remained for me to acquire.

Finally, when I came to the place where you say that someone will one day arise who will treat this very subject more extensively, and if that ever happens, it will be most pleasing to you, I truly admired your equanimity, by which you surpassed yourself in any divine sentiment. It was fortunate for that man to have reached the ultimate goal of our judgments, but for you, such a philosopher, to surpass the efforts of others was possible only through the assistance of a certain divinity. This, I believe, is the disposition that our leader of wisdom, Aristotle, held in high esteem outside and above all other virtues, in the statue of the heroic soul.

Therefore, while I was contemplating these things with a certain foolishness and looking around at your other works, I was led by some impulse, perhaps deceived, certainly captivated, to imitate you, whom I judged to have been raised to such heights not only by the pursuit of many arts but also by the attainment of the greatest virtues. So, with repeated reading of these books eagerly, nothing was lacking in matters or superfluous in language; however, I thought that brevity in which Aristotle presents himself in both books did not so much need support for its own sake as it aroused a desire in others to seek assistance in understanding.

But to me, more than to others, who had previously spent a better age among arms recklessly, in vain, and wretchedly, the rudiments of late education were known, and my timidity was less liberal but not shameless, and conscious of itself, so it seemed necessary to pursue them with the utmost diligence. Gradually, therefore, when I had overwhelmed myself with many difficulties of the subject matter (for the variety of things seemed to offer an easy passage to us at the beginning), I was led into places where it was not permissible to turn back my foot. Yet my spirit grew along with the dangers, and much arduous and laborious work was undertaken tirelessly.

But often my weakness, aware of itself, was brought back by less timely imprudence; the pursuit of wisdom impelled me to persist obstinately until the end. This pursuit was often divided into various parts so much that I was ashamed of my audacity, wearied of my labors, and discouraged by my progress. As for me, your kindness reminded me to engage in this kind of exercise, in which I had been engaged for a long time in various and great matters. So that we could propose to each other what you had either missed or intentionally neglected to sharpen our minds, to be considered either as supplements or to be weighed as if in a public competition.

Not moved by the desire to contradict or argue, but motivated by the common right of all students, I presented these matters to be judged before you, the greatest leader of all letters, with the consensus of all. And these matters could not have been available to us without your efforts. Therefore, I hope that you will not overlook our eagerness or disregard our novelty as if we are surrendering ourselves to your patronage, but rather we will start exercising now.

From Giovanni Battista Silvatico's Book on the Origin, Antiquity, Necessity, Dignity, etc. of the Milanese College of Physicians, Milan, 1607

Chapter 20 of Hieronymus Cardanus:

But no one among the practicing physicians explained in public schools more fully, purely, and clearly than Hieronymus Cardanus, who was knowledgeable in almost all sciences. He was as if born for every kind of science, the most outstanding among his contemporaries and ancient medical practitioners, truly the light of medicine. He taught publicly in almost all the universities of Italy and practiced the medical art with the utmost glory and authority in the most celebrated cities, drawing his teachings from the purest Greek sources. He was not only a notable physician but also a brilliant philosopher, highly skilled in every part of philosophy, a great astrologer, and an expert in ancient magic. He used to predict the outcome of events with a certain wonderful prophecy.

He was born to a father who was a learned lawyer and an excellent mathematician. He wrote four books on fate, one on new geometry, one on arithmetic, and one on the judgments of the stars. He wrote two books on the subtlety and variety of things, a large volume on medical contradictions, one on the harmful use of medicine, one on poisons, one on the causes and signs of diseases, one on the preservation of health, one on the secrets of eternity, one on the immortality of the soul, and one on secrets. He also wrote commentaries on Hippocrates' works on air, places, and waters, on his Prognostics, on the book on food, on the books on epidemics, on the Aphorisms, on the book on Providence from the constitution of the year, four books on dreams, and several treatises, which include a book on his own books, on remarkable cures, on predictions, on Nero's encomium, and on the encomium of geometry, on one act against a Thessalian physician, on secrets, on gems, on colors, on dialogue on death, on dialogue Timaeus or on human councils, on small and close things, and on the highest good.

Who, pray tell, besides Hippocrates and Galen, wrote more and such diverse works on medicine? The condition of these books is truly remarkable, so much so that they were accepted and useful to all nations, that they were often printed with great care everywhere and in every region of Europe, and were even the subject of competition among printers striving for the most polished and corrected edition, never to be lost as a result. Truly, at times he could say of himself, "I have written more than I have read, I have taught more than I have learned."

No Italian prince, while he lived, neglected his aid or advice in medicine. Indeed, his fame, which spread far and wide, even reached distant lands. Thus, Johannes Amulthon, of the royal family of the Iceni, and even the highest Pontiff, called him to him and bestowed many and great rewards on him for restoring his health. If we were to attempt to recount all the wonders that can be said of this great man one by one, undoubtedly our speech would fall short, and our hand would falter in writing. Let it suffice to recall in this one place the famous eulogy bestowed on him by the illustrious poet, who declared him the greatest rival of Epidaurus among all:

"Among all the rivals of Epidaurus, Cardanus is the head,
And in Rome he died, in the year of human salvation 1576.
Death was that by which I lived my life,
You lived for sixty-seven years for yourself, but never enough for others."

The first part of the most famous and learned man Jacob Philip Thomasini, of noble Parauian and most deserving bishop of the new city's eulogies, published in Padua in 1630.

Hieronymus Cardanus

Patritius of Milan, who received the first lessons of his virtues in the Academy of Pavia, is renowned for his cultivation and explanation of mathematics above all others, thanks to the countless monuments of his intellect that have been proven to the entire world. He was born in the year 101, on the 9th day before the Kalends of September, at the sixth hour and 40 minutes after noon, to his mother Clara Micheria and his aged father Facio Cardano, a distinguished jurist. He was extracted from the womb by force (as he himself testified) and revived by a splash of wine. He was born with black, long, and thick hair. As an infant, he was susceptible to cold humors, and throughout the course of his life, he experienced unexpected and extreme trials and triumphs beyond the thoughts of all mortals, playing both sides of fortune's dice. For sometimes he was afflicted with calamities, while at other times he enjoyed great abundance of blessings. He was known to princes, kings, and ecclesiastical dignitaries, and was most pleasing to them. Often warned in his dreams, he avoided great dangers, and what he wrote with the help of the divine, he tried to persuade future generations.

He married a discerning woman in his middle age, who had three miscarriages, two sons, and a daughter. She died after living with Cardano for fifteen years, at the age of forty-six. He devoted himself to his children's education, then to writing, and entrusted many things to be recorded in public records. He was very successful in discovering new things, and wrote more than he read and taught more than he learned, as he burned with an immoderate desire for knowledge, fame, and glory, and he eagerly pursued all the labors and troubles of his studies in order to reach the pinnacle of immortality. Whoever you are, if you want to know more precisely, a book about his own books, or the book of the twelve genitures, of which the eighth is that of Hieronymus Cardanus, exhibits his character, intellect, fortunes, wealth, and all events to be hoped for, with amazing eloquence, and is almost truthful.

The old man satisfied the laws of nature almost in the year in which he predicted his death. He was buried in the church of Saint Mark in Milan, in the tomb that his father Facio Cardano had erected for himself, with these words:

Fazio Cardano
1st century
Death was the end of what I lived, but also gave me rest. My name remains as my glory.
He died in the year 1576, on the 4th day before the Kalends of September, at the age of 80.
To Hieronymus Cardanus, physician, by his parent and descendants.

Furthermore, we owe the image and coin of such a great man to the most excellent and virtuous Felice Osio, who has held the primary chair of Greek and Latin eloquence for six years in the light of the Paduan Academy with the highest praise. For it was through his kindness and erudition, with the assistance of the very learned and humane Giovanni Antonio Castellionaeus, Doctor of Laws and Sacred Theology, and Vicar of the Parish of San Vincenzo in Praro near Milan, that we have acquired knowledge of both the dream and its interpretation as written by Cardanus himself in his book on his own books with these words: "I have depicted this dream, as it were a gentle glory of mine, if any there be, in the illustrations opposite my image. Let anyone who wishes to know the dream and its interpretation approach the book itself, for I am most willing to satisfy their curiosity."

Julius Capacious in the Elogiis of illustrious men of letters. Hieronymus Cardanus

I would say that Hieronymus Cardanus climbed the summit of all knowledge, having experienced poverty from the time before he was born (for his mother drank an abortifacient at the request of another person, as he himself attests in his work on poverty). He brought honors not only to Milan, where he was born, and to Bologna, whose university he adorned, but to all of Italy, where he was famous. Perhaps no age knew a more learned man, but one who was also curious, and lost in delight in the secrets of nature, to the point of emancipating himself from superstitions. Would you say that he was not refined in his writing, since he seemed to write down whatever came to his mind? He was highly skilled in medicine, but often you would notice him contradicting the opinions of others, as if he were ambitiously seeking to provoke controversy. He himself was a better knight than Bellerephon, and did not follow the footsteps of weak kings. He was not bored with the subtle variety of things in nature, which exercised the ingenuity of Scaliger.

You accuse him of transferring mathematics to the author of nature, how vain? Ah, how great is the audacity of humans. However, it is unseemly to include him in the same category, when he noticed Raymond Lull. What could he have done more nobly than to reject that scoundrel and sycophant of scholars? What could be more foolish or dirty than that? What could be more insane than the followers of Lull? Or would you call Cardano mad in the great art of algebraic rules, and even madder in the judgments of future events? He also wrote about the immortality of the soul, contradictions among doctors, the preservation of health, the harm of simple medicines, comments on Ptolemy, arithmetic, practical arithmetic, and the usefulness of learning from adverse books. In order to excel in everything, he showed himself to be versed in ethical practice, as an outstanding mathematician, physician, orator, and also knowledgeable in philosophy from every angle.

"From the Promptuarium of William Ronillius, page 268"

Hieronymus Cardanus, a highly skilled physician from Milan, wrote many works so carefully and diligently that he is rightly regarded by all literati for his exceptional talent and extensive knowledge of various subjects. He wrote the most complete arithmetic, a unique practical arithmetic and mensuration, a book on the great art of algebraic rules, which is also the tenth book in order of his complete work on arithmetic. He wrote five books on wisdom, three books on consolation, revised by the author himself, a book on the immortality of the soul printed by Gryphius in Lyon in the year of the Lord 1585, a book of contradictions of physicians, containing 1,081 contradictions, a pamphlet on the faults of modern physicians in medical treatment, containing one hundred of their errors, and countless others which this page cannot contain. He flourished in the year of our salvation 1544.

HENRICVS MONANTHOLIVS in the Medical-Mathematical Game, page 9

Being satisfied with these ancient authorities, because the examples of more recent ones also move many, let us also present some selected more recent men who we know were greatly pleased with the same opinion. Among them, I first mention Jerome Cardan, to whom I think this tribute was rightly given by Rudolph Sylvester Bononiensis, a physician, when he said of him that he had excelled in all human sciences only as much as he had in each one of them, in which outstanding men have excelled. Cardan wrote Arithmetic, ten books of Geometry, very learned commentaries on the IV. Books of Ptolemy's Index, and many others; whoever wants to see their titles, let them read in the book he published about his own works. That same Cardan has often expressed in many places how necessary Mathematics are for a physician, I will mention only one place, etc.

"Petrus Rames in the Mathematical Proemium, page 470"

Hieronymus Cardanus wrote very learnedly on mathematics, but he practiced medicine.

"Petrus Rames in the Mathematical Proemium, page 480"

The present ornaments of the University of Bologna are Sigonius the Orator, Cardanus the Physician, Crassus the Jurisconsult of Papius, and Scaevola.

F. THOM. CAMPANELLA IN
Collection of my own books, pg. 87

Finally, Cardanus confirms many physiological and curious matters from moral, medical, and almost all sciences, and adds many superstitious things, like Apuleius. This is not bad, especially because he neglects nothing and leaves nothing untouched, so that a person may increase considerations and enrich sciences.

Paolo Morigia in the history of Antiquities of Milan, Book I, Chapter 59

But coming to more recent times, I say that Italians have shone with great brilliance in our city, the famous and immortal Andrea Alciati and Girolamo Cardano, the former a doctor of laws and the latter a doctor of medicine, both of them renowned not only in Italy but throughout Europe, and both were famous lecturers in the foremost universities not only in Italy but also in France, with a great number of students coming from all parts of Europe, who seemed to be rushing to the oracle of Apollo. In these men, the nobility of the language and excellence in other sciences is truly evident, as can be seen from the great volumes they left behind, a perpetual legacy to the world, immortalizing them and bringing glory to their homeland.

Hippocrates Reader: The Comments of Hieronymus Cardanus on Aphorisms.

Thrown down by the fault of the Greeks before me, the Insubrian people restored me from oblivion. May the piety of another race restore him to his rightful place, as they have done for me, for all his merits.

Cardanus about himself at the beginning of Book 1, responding to objectors.

Although doctors, countrymen, relatives, fortune, and parents hated me, they were not able to overcome my extreme labors by the order of fate. Thus, envy and malice always prevail.

The same under his own portrait in books on Subtlety and elsewhere.

The earth will not cover me, but taken up into the high sky, I will live adorned on the lips of illustrious men. Whatever Phoebus will reveal in the future years will recognize Cardanus, my name, and even me.

Under the same image in the "Icones" of LoSambuco, which verses are also recorded by Johan Croese in "Elogiis" Book 2:

"This spirit moves the rare talents in his heart, and moves the bright stars; I do not know what to say, I am amazed, unless you think he wrote more than he read."

Marcantonio Maioragio under the persona of Cardano:

At the end of Book 2 of Contradicentium:

"The completed monuments of immense labor now exist, which neither lightning, nor cruel fire, nor hard iron, nor long periods of time will be able to destroy. Now that his head is covered in darkness, which waged so many wars against his own body, let death, the relentless one, come to us; but his mind, the better part of me, will ascend to the stars. My name will live clearly through the centuries and everything that displays the excellence of the Latin language; a crowd of learned men will constantly read me."

Marcantonio Maioragio, rhetorician, hendecasyllabic poem addressed to Hieronymus Cardanus, physician of Milan:

At the beginning of Book 1 of Contradicentium:

"Cardan, the prince among all my friends, in learning, in wit, and in sagacity, who, supported by Apollo, the favoring god of the medical art, urged by him to travel along a path not yet followed, and having abandoned the beaten track already deserted by the others, taught the sick and abandoned how to live without severe affliction. Why are those golden works which you have written on your tablets so long suppressed? Why don't you make them accessible to the uneducated, so that finally they can enjoy your genius? Why don't you publish the gifts that have been given to you from heaven, so that those who have no such talent can take refuge in your writing and receive healing? For your reputation precedes you, shouting aloud at your doorstep, and testifying that the Gods will grant you immortal glory, if you take pity on sick humanity and release your completed works as soon as possible."

The title "Incerti ad Hieron. Cardanum" refers to a work mentioned by Cardano himself in his own book, published in Basel in 1562, and also by Baptista Sylvaticus in his eulogy of Cardano.

Among all the rivals of Evidaurum, you have captured and elevated Cardanus enough. The people of Europe are satisfied enough, left behind by your pinnacle. The crown, which amazed the world, was once spreading the riches of art from high shelves. The fruits of magic and skill of the arena are carried through various pages around the world, which, selected and cherished by learned hands, are savored, held, and nurtured, far from the hidden teachings for readers.

You were called the ruler of Aquilonia to escape death approaching them. Those who are brought back by you deceive Charon, while he awaits them in the Stygian sands. How many fellow citizens of your homeland have been cured by your medicines, whom even women wept for, but were still saved? These things demonstrate Cardanus enough and more, to strike the stars with your finger, despising others left on the ground.

Now, with such abundant resources, hold the reins, draw from your own fountains, so that thin streams flow into the world, while you openly reveal that the wealth of your teachings in the art of healing, embracing various sciences, deserve today's accolades: those who feel pain without the smallest gain, know that they only hold a small part, and are not judged in the entire world.

Io. Matthaeus Toscanus, in Peplo Italiae Lib. 4.

It is doubtful whether Cardan has cured more sick people or written more books in his lifetime. For whoever wanted to write so many volumes of texts would never have put down their pen. Those who knew him say that he spent day and night with the sick who were returning from the pale realm of death. He was fortunate in that he always helped future generations, and never failed to live up to his own time.

Hieronymus Cardanus, a renowned physician, philosopher, and mathematician from Milan, publicly taught medicine with great distinction in Pavia and Bologna. We have personally seen many men and women from distant regions, who were suffering from incurable illnesses, quickly recover under his care and return to their homes. He has published so many books that he himself was compelled to publish an index of them.

Gaspar Cunradus in his Prosopographia Melica Millenario Primo:

"My contests are read by the master of various things: Should I be called Daedalus or a mere artisan of nature?"

N. 24. September A.D. 1501. Died on September 21, 1576, at the age of 75.

Poem 1, entitled "The Praise of Cardan," was written by Venatorius and is found in the book De Subtilitate, published in Lyon in 1550 and printed by Rouillium in octavo.

Here he drinks from the fountains of wisdom and the streams of the Muses, and he is not unworthy of Phoebus and the learned men. From this, he blends the juices of medicine and the bodies of kings, and they are believed to be of the highest care and trust. Then there are the well-known mathematical problems of the citizen of Syracuse, known and developed in the world and in the cities.

Poem 2, entitled "In Praise of the Same (Cardan)," was written by Laurence Durnhofer and is found in the same book.

The fiery flames and the stormy waters will not be able to extinguish your glory, Cardan. You thunder greatly and powerfully throughout the entire world, even reaching up to the highest heaven. While you reveal hidden things covered by a certain darkness, and teach various difficult things, and while your medicine cures human pains, and you heal the wounds of the heart with the help of God. While you show the stars and the painted constellations of the sky, and the arts which the beautiful world possesses. And while you bring forth all disciplines for use, who makes needy and good artists.

Annibale della Croce's letter to the reader of Cardan's Arithmetic:

The multiple uses of numbers and their parts, which are to be read in a thousand books, are arranged with ease and knowledge in this small, simple book which Cardan takes great care in. Read it soon, and you will say that you owe as much to this small book as you would to a thousand volumes.

The following is a Latin poem from Astronomicum opus by Hieron. Cardanus, a supplement to the Almanac, written by Joachim Hetterus Leucopetraeus. It is found in the last edition of the year 1547.

It is said that the learned old man of Syracuse fashioned the flying stars in delicate glass, and that wandering Luna lowered her radiant horns and descended from her place to visit Endymion. Thus, Atlas the great and strong Orion have names that will not die in fame.

You too, Cardanus, renowned for your intellect and skilled in art, will enjoy lasting glory in the ages to come. Like a bringer of the stars from the heights of Olympus, you teach of the times, signs, orbs, constellations, and fates. You reveal the various causes of things in the ether, and much besides that was previously hidden. This is a truly noble pleasure worthy of calm minds, to seek the illustrious mysteries of kindred science.

Royal Privilege (Royal Permission or Authorization).

LOUIS, BY THE GRACE OF GOD, KING OF FRANCE AND NAVARRE;
To our dear and loyal counselors, the holders of our Courts of Parliament, masters of the ordinary Requests of our Household, Baillis, Seneschals, their Lieutenants, and to all other our Justices and Officers to whom it may concern, Greetings.

Our dear and beloved JEAN ANTOINEN and MARC-ANTOINE RAVAUD, Booksellers of our City of Lyon, have very humbly represented to us that, through the efforts of several persons of consideration, to whom they have contributed their own, with notable sums of money, they have recovered all the works of HIERONYMUS CARDAN, notably the manuscripts of this Author. For the acquisition of these works, and to have a portion of them transcribed, they have made very great expense, as they must still do for the engraving of a large number of figures, and to compensate the skilled men whom they employ to put everything in order and with the necessary ornaments.

These works, being very useful to the public and greatly desired by learned and curious people, the Applicants would like to have them printed if it pleases us to grant them our necessary letters.

For these reasons, desiring to treat the Exposers favorably, to give them the means to recover the expenses they have made and those they have to make, and to prevent the public from being deprived of the usefulness that it can derive from said works, we have permitted and allow them, by these presents, to print and have printed all the aforementioned works in such typefaces, margins, and as many times as they deem appropriate, during the time and space of twenty years from the day they are finished printing.

We make during said time very express injunctions and prohibitions to all persons of whatever quality and condition they may be, to print, have printed, sell, or distribute said works, or any part thereof, without the agreement and consent of the aforementioned Exposers, under any pretext whatsoever, on pain of ten thousand pounds in fines. One third of this fine shall be payable to Us, one third to the Hôtel-Dieu of Our City of Paris, and the other third to the aforementioned Exposers, along with confiscation of counterfeit copies, and of all expenses, damages, and interest.

On the condition that the aforementioned Exposers place two copies of the said works in our public library, one to serve our person in our Castle of the Louvre, in the place commonly called the Cabinet des Livres, and one in that of our very dear and loyal Knight Chancellor of France, the Sieur Seguier, before exposing them for sale, under penalty of nullity of these presents.

We want and command that you allow the said Huguetan and Ravaud, or those who have rights from them, to enjoy and use them without any hindrance. We also want that, by placing an extract of these presents at the beginning or end of the said works, they shall be deemed duly notified, and that faith shall be added to them, and to the copies collated by one of our dear and faithful Counselors and Secretaries, as to the original.

We order the first Bailiff or Sergeant, upon request, to perform all necessary acts and proceedings for the execution of these presents, without requiring any further permission, notwithstanding any opposition or appeals, Clameur de Harc, Charte Normande taken as a party, or other letters to the contrary, for such is our pleasure.

GIVEN in Paris on the twenty-ninth day of September in the year of grace one thousand six hundred and fifty-eight, and in the sixth year of our reign.

By the King in his Council.
MASCLARY.
Finished printing on April 17, 1663.

The End

Translation of Certain Genitures from De Exemplis Centum Geniturarum (On the Examples of One Hundred Birth Charts)

Book

On the Examples of One Hundred Birth Charts

PREFACE

We do not undertake the examination of any of these birth charts lightly or for trivial reasons, as each one of them contains something worthy of admiration. However, when it comes to those charts belonging to private individuals, it will not be difficult to both describe their entire lives and persuade that what we have written is true. In explaining the dispositions of rulers, it will be a much greater and more challenging task to discuss and, above all, to convince. This is because rulers, as indicated by the positions of the stars, have the most significant fluctuations in their fortunes, and their birth charts provide no clear evidence. Furthermore, it is not possible to speak ill of them while they are alive without risk, and praising them without arousing suspicion of flattery. Even if they were entirely free from misfortunes and adversity, few would readily believe it.

Indeed, some have entirely absolved the bodies and souls of rulers from celestial causes, as Firmicus did. They were allowed to do so, those who even called them gods due to vain superstition. However, for us, who practice true piety and consider nothing in the stars as superstitious but rather observe them as natural causes, it is not permissible. Just as all people, without discrimination, suffer from heat, cold, and pain, we do not deny that the bodies and minds of rulers are violently changed and gently swayed towards good and evil.

"Sequitur figura exempli primi geniturarum" translates to "follows the chart of the first example of birth charts." What we have before us is the geniture of Francesco Petrarch, or as shown in Latin, "Franciscus Petrarcha." The middle section tells us the date on which Petrarch was born ("1304, on Monday, the 20th day of the month of July, at 7 hours and 40 minutes before noon, Aries"), and his corresponding zodiac, as well as the position of various celestial objects on the date and time of his birth. From this, Cardano then provides us with an analysis of what is to be expected given this information, using the standard astrological method of the time. Let me say from here on that all of the genitures follow the same exact pattern. This is all just exposition. I will now provide the translation of Cardano’s analysis:

"With Jupiter, small stars, of the nature of Saturn and Venus.
With Mars, small stars of the Twins, of the nature of Saturn, and there are 5.
With Venus, the star of the foot of the Twins, of the third magnitude, a little of Venus's nature.
With Mercury and the ascendant, a small star, of the nature of Saturn and Mercury.
With the ascendant, that is, near the boundary of sight, the lesser Dog Star rises.
With the lowest point of the sky, the Virgin's spike, of the nature of Venus, a little of Mercury: and Arcturus in Bootes, of Jupiter's nature, of the first magnitude.

Many things were excellent in this distinguished man. First, the charming sweetness of his poems, celebrated throughout the entire world. Jupiter excels in the house of Mercury, in square with Venus, being in the foot of Gemini, of Mercury's nature, and a bit of Venus. It was also in trine with the Moon, and it was intercepted by the rays of opposite Jupiter. Therefore, this configuration bestows eloquence, which it cannot exceed. Second, depth of thought with great zeal. Mercury provided this in the degree ascending next to the Sun, in sextile with Saturn, which was greatly augmented by the ascending of the lesser Dog Star, of Mercury's nature. And in this way, he combined authority with learning and eloquence. Third, perpetual and tireless glory, to the extent that it even extended into the Spanish language. This was shown by the spike of the Virgin, situated at the lowest point in the sky."

"Fifth is the indication of Mercury, bestowing the plurality of languages. He excelled in the Latin and Greek languages, for Mercury, being strong, always provides a plurality of languages, especially when he is close to the Sun. Moreover, the Sun in the East grants a long life. In the second, it signifies religion, which it often accomplishes."

This is Cardano’s own father, Fazio Cardano. It tells us that he was born in 1445, on the 15th of July, at 8 hours and 41 minutes before noon. "Cor coeli" translates to "Heart of the Sky" in English. This phrase is often used in the context of astrology or celestial observations to refer to a specific point or celestial body in the sky. The following is Cardano’s analysis:

"Saturn with the northern foot of Cancer, of the nature of Saturn and Mercury, of the fifth magnitude.

Jupiter with a star outside the form of Cancer, of the nature of Saturn and Mercury, of the fourth magnitude.

Mars with a star, of the fourth magnitude, of the nature of Mercury, and a little of Venus.

Sun with the donkey of the fourth magnitude, of the nature of Mars and the Sun.

Venus with the same, as Saturn. Ascendant with Apollo, of the nature of Mercury, and of great size, the second.

Also, the belt of Orion coascends, of the nature of Saturn and Jupiter, which is nothing stronger. Midheaven with the belly of Pisces, of the fourth magnitude, of the nature of Mercury and Jupiter.

Nadir with the face of Virgo, of the fifth magnitude, of the nature of Mercury and a little of Mars.
But this present nativity does not have many notable things. First, the length of life, which the Sun in Leo shows in the ascendant and with Jupiter. Venus and Saturn in the ascendant also increase the strength of life, but they bestow many bad influences. Therefore, he lived for 79 complete years.

Second, an immense love of studying; he did nothing else. The belt of Orion coascends, which provides this, and Saturn adds patience and labor. Apollo gives talent, and likewise the belt of Orion, but laziness; nevertheless, it grants an outstanding memory. Thus, he was a doctor of both laws, a physician and mathematician.

Third, knowledge of hidden doctrines. His expertise in necromancy was so great that he outlived all of our age. He had a very humid brain. Saturn in the ascendant provides this, and the Moon in the sixth in Sagittarius in trine with Mercury. It was publicly believed that he had a familiar spirit, which he openly confessed.

Fourth, he lost all his teeth at the age of 58, and then he lived for 21 years without any teeth. He also had weak vision because the donkey accompanying him afflicted the Sun, and the Moon was in the sixth in the Milky Way. Therefore, both eyes were affected, and they were white and small, and his intellect was somewhat turbid. However, Saturn falling in Cancer, a humid sign, combust, took away his teeth, and perhaps a small star being with Saturn added malevolence.

Fifth, he twice consumed poison, which I don't know has ever happened to anyone else. Saturn afflicted with Venus in an afflicted position, as it joins under the rays of the Sun in an afflicted position of fortune, he first took at the age of 23, and the second at the age of 50. The first was arsenic, sublimated, and the second was a terminated poison. Others who took it with him perished, and he survived. However, he was left with a trembling heart, which lasted for 56 years. And this seems to contradict Galen's experiment, as he lived to be very old, but it is not so."

"Sixth, he was a man of incomparable integrity, the other Cato, free in speaking, the most just hater of vices. This is because the Moon was in the house of Jonah, in trine with Mercury in the house of the Sun, and the Moon was the ruler of the ascendant, and Jupiter was with the Sun in its own house and in the first house.

Seventh, he was timid and neglectful of things, not a lover of his own, but as if he were an entirely rigid man. Saturn combust in the ascendant provides this."

We now move to Marcus Tullius Cicero. It tells us he was born “In the year before the birth of Christ 105, on the 5th day of August, at 7 hours and 51 minutes before noon." Now, this is quite interesting because the Wikipedia entry on Cicero says he was born on the 3rd of January, in the year 106 BC. I suspect this difference is the result of the switch from the Julian calendar, which was used at the time Cardano wrote this, to the Gregorian calendar, which occurred on the 4th of October 1582 on the orders of Pope Gregory XIII. Now, onto Cardano’s analysis:

The ornament of eloquence, the pride of Rome, with the heart of a lion in the horoscope, has the Sun, the tail, Mercury, Venus, and Mars with it: hence the highest eloquence and authority were bestowed upon him. Almost the same were given to Petrarch. There was nothing lacking in him; nothing can be added to him. The tail, along with the Sun as the lord of the horoscope, makes him sharp and clever, but always with a violent end in sight. Saturn and Jupiter in the sign of Scorpio, where a great conjunction was celebrated at that time, aid in his decrees.

Thus, that fellow Arpinas, a certain king in Rome, had enemies everywhere who openly and widely accused him. Mars in the ascendant with its rays, hostile to Saturn and Jupiter, confirms the decrees of a violent death but increases power, because Mars rules Scorpio, and Jupiter Leo, for the sake of the trine. Moreover, the Moon, as a cause of women, decrees troubles and does not provide a firm health from the beginning, for the length of life is decreed by the Sun in Leo in the horoscope. Because of all these reasons, there was such eloquence, erudition, prudence, and power, and he was pitifully slaughtered, even the hand that left us so many monuments of himself.

His head was placed on the Rostra, where he had so often moderated the Roman people with such glory and turned the admiration of his fortune into the mockery of fate and the crime of Marcus Antonius. And although it may not be entirely certain that this was before Caesar's correction, which Macrobius mentions, we have no doubt about the Sun, the tail, Mercury, Mars, and Venus, in Leo, Saturn and Jupiter in Scorpio. It could be an error of a few days, which we consider likely. But we have followed the account of time that all, and especially Plutarch, have handed down. There is no doubt about the position of the ascendant. Therefore, only the place of the Moon remains unexplored.

Now, this geniture caused some controversy, as Martin Luther was responsible for the Protestant Reformation and was viewed by the predominant Catholic Italy with great suspicion. Given what Luther had done, many astrologers wanted to create his geniture, but it was hard to do considering Luther himself did not know the time of his birth. Men had tried before Cardano to cast the horoscope of Luther, such as Nicolaus Gugler and Luca Gaurico, but all efforts proved inconclusive. When Luther was presented with Cardano’s chart, as shown above, he said, "I think this is worthless." He also demanded to know how the astrologers could explain why Esau and Jacob had such radically different characters despite being twins, which, according to astrology, should mean they have the same exact characteristics, abilities, and fates. This right here is the silver bullet to astrology in not only my opinion, but also Pico della Marandola's and Francesco Guicciardini’s. It tells us he was born in the year "1483, on the 22nd of October, at 10 o'clock in the afternoon." Now, onto Cardano’s analysis.

"Know that this is the true natal chart of Luther, not the one that is publicly circulated under the year 1448. Nor should a lesser chart be attributed to such a great matter, nor should such an event be attributed to a lesser chart. I believe, however, that those who do not understand the foundations of this art have corrupted it. For the chart of Luther is not equal in strength to this one, and if you wish to blame someone, there is no one here to accuse. For Mars, Venus, and Jupiter, along with the Virgin's Spica, come together in the sky to the nail, so that from their conjunction, a certain royal power might be determined, without a scepter, for they are wandering stars beneath the earth. Furthermore, regarding religion, it has been said so often, especially because of the Virgin's Spica, that it is tiresome to repeat. Therefore, it is incredible how much growth this dogma has had in a short time. For Luther influenced a great part of Germany, all of England, and many other regions, and there is hardly a province left untouched by his followers, except for Spain. The world fervently desires to divide itself, and because it has Mars mixed in and a tail, it dissolves within itself. It produces countless heads, and even if nothing else convicts the error, the multitude of opinions can still show that truth alone is not so abundant, and many are necessarily led astray. Moreover, the firmness of this dogma is indicated by the Sun and Saturn, along with the southern scale, showing the place of the future great conjunction, when that trigon was already dominating. But when the Moon is truly joined with Saturn against the Sun, it does not confer any dignity for such a movement of affairs. He died on February 17th, at 2:30 PM, in Eisleben, where he was born."

Next is perhaps the prince of all men of letters, Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus. Cardano puts his birth as "1467, on the 28th of October, at 3:45 AM, before the sunrise."

"So, I come to you first, O Erasmus, the great glory of our times, smaller than Cicero by as much as the Roman Empire is greater than Germany, and as much as the Italian is more inclined to eloquence than the Barbarian. Nature has made you prone to eloquence, and it is easier to excel in one's native tongue than in a foreign one. Yet, you have triumphed over the lack of culture in your eloquence, the sweetness of many languages, and your knowledge of numerous sciences, and barbarity owes you more than it has harmed.

You shone with Mercury and Venus near the Virgin's Spica, and with the Moon and the node sharp in wit, granting you continuous increase in fortune, as we have often testified, given that it is found in your horoscope. All these influences Jupiter benevolently supported with a benign trine radiation of the tail, and in a double sign. Thus, although imbued with sacred matters, it was not through virtue that you achieved honors but through the multitude of languages, fulfilling the perfection of the number seven, and acquiring ample knowledge of sacred scriptures. Furthermore, Mars himself forms an opposition, and in the sixth place, he stirs up diseases; for you often suffered from stone. Saturn in the seventh signifies no small danger and many snares from enemies, but since it is in conjunction with the tail and the Sun, which are less than two parts apart, it denies offspring and marriage. Additionally, because it is in Scorpio, it is unfavorable; however, it increases the cause of calculus. You lived for seventy years, a happy life, so that you neither lacked time for study nor exceeded in frivolities and jests.

I do not believe there is another nativity more suitable for such a great man, if we are given the opportunity to choose, for the rays of both misfortunes, the Sun, the Moon, Mercury, and Venus, are free. Moreover, that Venus is joined with the Spica of the Virgin in the horoscope is evidence of remarkable eloquence and dexterity in handling matters, as well as a significant augmentation of fortune. He died when Venus, the ruler of the figure and life, came to oppose Jupiter and square Mars. However, not everyone who has such a nativity will be equal to Erasmus, but as we have mentioned before, many favorable revolutions, like those of Erasmus, will be necessary to succeed."

We now move to a man somewhat more obscure than the previous. This is Andrea Alciato. The only reason I include him, as I will another person later, is because he was a good friend of Cardano’s and, for those that may not know, Cardano wrote a rather short biography of him, which one can find in the 9th volume of his Omnia. I will reproduce it here, but I first wish to translate Cardano’s analysis of his geniture first. As for his date of birth, Cardano tells us he was born in "1492, May 8th, at the second hour from sunrise."

Nor will I omit our fellow citizen, lest it be said to me out of envy, "ungrateful Greeks to the Greeks." However, this omission is justified, since he wrote that this art was fallacious and should be publicly punished, relying on certain laws at the time that were strict and just. These laws aimed to prevent the world from being filled with the ignorance of charlatans who, without knowledge, without study, and without judgment, put empires at risk, proclaiming false predictions. His use of these laws rendered them null and void when it became apparent in the following times that this discipline, if used skillfully, would greatly benefit humanity. But perhaps this is a digression. So let us return to the original intention, which was to include only those who have produced something praiseworthy for the public with these examples.

Although I am well aware that there may be some in our city who are so adorned with every virtue and brilliance that they would bring great benefit here if added, I have only placed Alciatus's nativity here because it could be done without suspicion of flattery. For while he lived, he published many things worthy of reading, and hardly anyone else could have achieved that fate. He retained the brilliance of the Latin language among so many heaps of barbaric interpreters and added another Greek as well. One contends in the brilliance of eloquence with Budaeus, not only true but also with Erasmus, and if we may dare to say so, with successful Mars. Furthermore, he is far superior in gravity, easily so, if you compare his letters with letters, speeches with speeches. Therefore, I would not unjustly add this nativity to this work, of which Venus, placed in the horoscope and forming a mutual trine with the Moon and Saturn, together with both of them in human signs and the Moon in Virgo, precisely at the Spica, decree an outstanding virtue.

Moreover, Saturn's square radiation, combined with Mars and Mercury and the Tail, sharpens the mind but does not favor the rest. If it were in an angle, it would impose the risk of violent death. However, the strong sextile of Jupiter from the angle opposes it and, as I see, all is clear.

The Life of the Same Andrea Alciato, Jurisconsult of Milan

Andreas Alciatus, son of Ambrosius, and his mother Margarita Landriana from the town of Alzate, near Milan, was the only child of his father. He had exceptional qualities from a young age, retaining a sense of gravity beyond his social status. He was first educated in Latin and Greek, and when compared to the eloquence of ancient times, he perhaps even surpassed it, especially when compared to our times. His style was more polished, purer, fuller, and more melodious. He was also highly skilled in poetry.

Afterward, he went to Bologna to study jurisprudence and was considered one of the foremost scholars of his age, even as a young man. He had the opportunity to study under the famous jurist Jason Maynus in Pavia. After earning his laurel wreath, he returned to Milan, where his erudition gained him such authority that he was admitted into the College of Jurisconsults, despite some obstacles. Senator Gualtherus Corbeta, due to his outstanding wisdom and legal expertise, rather than the laws and statutes of the college itself, was admitted on the basis of his eminent knowledge.

Soon after, he was called to Avignon in France, a papal city, where he taught jurisprudence at a substantial salary. His fortune was such that he excelled not only in legal knowledge but also in eloquence and in his mastery of Greek and Latin literature. He surpassed all his contemporaries and even his predecessors in this field. It could be truly said of him what Cicero once said of Scaevola: "The most eloquent of jurists, the most jurisprudent of orators." This could not only be truly said but was the consensus of all.

He excelled in eloquence, knowledge of languages, historical understanding, and subtlety of interpretation more than anyone who had ever lived in that field. If his existing works did not clearly testify to this fact, I would suspect flattery. However, the reality is greater than my words, so I will quote Horace: "The thing itself refuses ornament; it is content to be taught." I will, therefore, leave the judgment to each person, especially because his books are now held in the highest authority by everyone. No one disdains Alciatus, and no one thinks they can be considered a learned jurist without him. But let's leave these matters and continue with our discussion about his life, which was our original topic.

When his name was celebrated everywhere, from Italy, all of Gaul, Spain, Germany, Pannonia, Cimbria, and the Britons, students flocked to him from all nations. Therefore, he was well-known to a very numerous audience from all nations. Called back to his homeland with an annual salary of two talents and a half, the sum of which is 1500 gold Philippians, he was also adorned with senatorial dignity. This salary was imposed on him by John Sforza II, as he had received a similar amount in France every year. After professing in Pavia for some time, he went to Bologna for his studies. Later, due to some discontent, he went to Ferrara. When the wars ceased, he was forcibly recalled to his homeland by Emperor Charles V, but on the condition that he should teach without a competitor.

I heard from many trustworthy people that he was called by the Pope to be included in the College of Cardinals, which they call the Purple College, under any condition. However, he could not be persuaded by any condition or promises. This man was without envy to all, and most people I know would prefer him to many illustrious ancient scholars. He excelled incomparably in erudition, the multitude of books, his contemporary fame, and his authority among all the Princes of Europe. His lectures were attended by numerous audiences, his salary was substantial, and he possessed considerable wealth and extraordinary eloquence. So much so that when he was speaking, mortals believed they were hearing a new Cicero. In addition, he excelled in gravity, knowledge of languages, knowledge of history, and subtlety of interpretation, surpassing all who lived in that field. If his volumes, which are extant, did not testify to this clearly, I would be unable to suspect flattery.

But let us leave these matters and return to the subject of his life, as we had intended. For although he had obtained the highest of privileges from both nature and fortune, he was not entirely fortunate, for what is added to him on one side is taken away on the other. Frequent illnesses tormented him, and the severe pains of gout were so intense that in his last years he could not walk and his feet were swollen. Sometimes even his hands were affected, and he often found tedium in life among such splendid ornaments of the mind and fortune. He died at the age of fifty-seven, on the 17th of February. In common conversation, he was pleasant, kind, humorous, and happy. He was known for his extraordinary humaneness, entirely noble manners, and a devoted friend. He was most famous among the brightest minds of his time, well-known to Budaeus, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Thomas More, and Longolius, from whom he received letters and to whom he wrote. He neither committed nor suffered anything cruel, but enjoyed the continuous favor of a benevolent fortune. He had houses in Milan and Pavia, but was without a wife. He left heirs, Andrea Baptist and Francesco, all from the Alciati family. I consider Andrea to be his son, but illegitimate.

Of these, Francesco was the most outstanding, whom he loved uniquely and appointed as the sole heir in the will of others. But the fortune that had entirely promised the entire inheritance to him granted it through the death of other co-heirs without sons. He became an illustrious jurist and continued to perform his duties until he was called to Rome by Charles Borromeo, where, a few years later, he was elected to the College of Cardinals, a position that Alciatus had initially declined. He was of moderate stature, with a broad chest, large limbs, large eyes, nose, lips, ears, and a face that was somewhat like a buffalo due to these features, but in such a way that everyone, even if they did not know him, would gladly revere him. While speaking, he followed words with a slight stutter, which would have been a defect in others, but in him, it had a certain charm. He had an incredible and tenacious memory, a sharp mind, good judgment, and amiable manners. However, he excelled in nothing as much as in prudence.

We now move to the man himself, Gerolamo Cardano, the author of the work I am presently translating and perhaps, in my and many others' opinions, the smartest, most learned man to have ever lived. Cardano says that he was born September 24, 1501, at 6:40 PM.

The Place of the Conjunction of the Luminaries

"The place of the conjunction of the luminaries marks the birth at 28 degrees and 48 minutes of Virgo. Saturn is with the right shoulder of Orion of the first magnitude, and with the right shoulder of Auriga of the second magnitude, both of the nature of Mars and Mercury, and with a little star of the nature of Mars. The Sun is with the last wing of the left Virgin, of the fourth magnitude, of the nature of Mercury and a little of Venus."

Saturn at M.D. 1° 40'.
Jupiter at M.D. 2° 0'.
Mars at M.A. 0° 36'.
Venus at S.D. 0° 52'.
Mercury at M.A. 2° 36'.
Moon at M.A. 4° 20'.

"Although I could count myself among illustrious men such as Jerome, Virgil, and Dante, who did not hesitate to include themselves among famous individuals, I must admit that this is not among the most distinguished achievements but rather among those that mark great misfortunes. Therefore, when some who are not experts in this art saw it, they asked if it could be mine, using the argument that they could find no trace of my life up to this point, nor any evidence of any dignity. Therefore, in your judgment, do not be deceived like those friends, since this work, carefully crafted by me with the utmost diligence, has been confirmed by the outcome.

First, it is appropriate to observe that Jupiter's body is precisely delineated due to the latitude on the horoscopic line. It signifies the nature and characteristics of the sign and even life itself when it becomes the ruler of the Moon's place and the Sun's place, for it holds the Terminus (as it is called) there. When it is joined with the head and in the same line as the star Fomalhaut, it promises victory after long disturbances in all matters. It pursues all evil individuals relentlessly, driven by an inherent antipathy, including parents, relatives, one's homeland, friends, and even oneself should one happen to transgress. For it is in Taurus that two fortunes rejoice, and this sign is feminine. This first decree is good from every perspective."

"Next, the ascendant's ruler is taken from Venus. When this is conjoined with Mercury in longitude, in a human sign, and in its own house within the Milky Way, with the star of the nature of Venus and Mercury in trine with Saturn, it bestows deep thought, study, diligence, and the highest degree of labor and patience. However, it produces obscure effects resulting from its placement in the sixth house, a turbulent disposition due to the Milky Way, a false memory, although great but fragile health, and other factors that, even if they are not necessarily bad, cannot be considered wholly favorable up to this point.

The third is the configuration of the Sun with Mars. When Mars is poorly placed, falling in the sixth house, it denies all dignities and glory derived from administration forever. Contrarily, it supports the lord of the heart of the heavens, Mars, so it does not deprive one of the dignities that are the right of those who have the authority to rule. Nor can anyone be in high regard to a ruler unless they hold an ecclesiastical dignity.

The fourth is the configuration of the Moon in a square with the malefic planets, with her head at Algol, and with a constellation of Aquarius, which is of the nature of Saturn. Mars himself is also in a circle with Aldebaran. With such a savage encounter, there can be nothing worse or more injurious. It combines a weak stomach, feeble mind, enemies' plots, loss of property, persecutions, and countless other evils, along with extreme dangers. It taints one's reputation among the people with false accusations. The Moon is alone responsible for half of each nativity.

To serve as an example for all other nativities, we will arrange the following based on both the structure and judgment, as this is the only one that I truly know and have labored on for more than thirty years. Therefore, even at the risk of my own reputation, like the sun, I have chosen to satisfy the scholars with this one. I will now proceed to divide the ten significators in the following manner."

Hours of the Planets and Key Locations

Their unique ascensions

Elevations of the position's circles according to our natural path

Locations to which the ten significators have reached in the current year, which is 44, complete.

"To determine the elevation of the pole above a location outside the ecliptic according to our view: observe which part of the ecliptic is rising with that specific location's ascension. Under the hours of the location, then see at what elevation of the pole that part of the ecliptic becomes an oblique ascension."

On Life

With these rightly and precisely arranged, I began to investigate life. First, I considered that I had suffered from a severe illness for seven days, and regarding nutrition, I examined its first part, which was related to the Moon. It indicated danger even at birth and during the early days. I was born under such circumstances, almost lifeless, and had to be forcibly extracted from my mother's womb. When I reached the age of twenty-four, I fell victim to a plague.

Regarding urine, I observed that it generally exceeded thirty-six ounces per night, and it was ruled by Venus, positioned in the sixth degree of one sign, restricted to four degrees in the third degree of Saturn. This configuration, resembling combustion, signified weakness and was associated with Mercury, indicating dropsy and numerous other diseases.

Next, I examined Mars as the third part of nutrition. It was in a square aspect with the Moon and in a trine aspect with the Sun. This configuration also indicated acute fevers and other illnesses. Due to the Ascendant being free and in sextile with the Moon, it suggested that I could survive but not necessarily that I should. I could only predict this before the events related to illnesses occurred, and the outcomes remained highly uncertain.

Following this, I considered the Moon as the vital and bodily significator for two reasons—its essence and its rulership of the Ascendant. Consequently, I examined its influence.

Later, I directed my attention to the opposition of Venus and Mercury, which yielded similar results. Afterward, I focused on the Dragon's Head, which also indicated adverse health conditions. It reached that point in the end of the year, but since it was the head and lacked a powerful star, it mainly indicated mild influences. Ptolemy, when there's a mutual aspect between the significator and the promissor, combines the Ascendant and the angles first with the significator and then with the promissor.

To determine the elevation of the pole over a location beyond the ecliptic, I considered the angle of ascent of the ecliptic along with the natural way. When the head of the Moon reached 43 degrees, I followed Ptolemy's opinion in 69 years and some months. According to our method, it will take 72 years to reach its conclusion.

Subsequently, I turned my attention to Mars rising, and it will reach that point in the beginning of the 27th year. I had a fever at that time but recovered. Mars was also afflicted by the hostile rays of Mars itself. The rays of the Sun were in trine and square aspects to the Moon. Later, I moved Saturn's position to the Ascendant, which it will reach in the 36th year, in 1538. I was worried that I might die, especially in the initial months, due to the illness. However, the ailment in which I lay was one that caused me to remain in bed for three months, but it disappeared on the third day. In other two illnesses, I never had to stay in bed.

Finally, I directed my attention to the right square of the Sun with the Ascendant, which will occur in the 58th year. This is expected to bring illness and danger, with a severe fever. Later, if I survive, I will focus on the square aspect of Venus and Mercury with the Ascendant, which will happen in the 72nd year.

These are the natural boundaries of diseases and death, but severe conditions arise when the ruler of the Ascendant forms a square with the Moon, opposes Mars, opposes Saturn, or forms a sextile with the Sun. In other cases, I will be safe unless a significant astrological event intervenes. If I manage to avoid general dangers, such as disasters, plagues, or shipwrecks...

Regarding Parents

I directed my attention to Saturn regarding my father, forming a trine with the Moon and a square with the Sun. It reached 11 degrees and 42 minutes of Cancer when I was 23 years old, and he passed away on August 28, 1524. For my mother, whose significators indicated a longer life than my father's, I directed my focus to Jupiter, the ruler of the fourth house, which opposes the tenth house signifying the mother, and it reached this position at the end of 36 years. She passed away on July 26, 1537, already in her seventies. Although this is the case, it would still be advisable to consult their individual birth charts. I have only made one prediction in my life, in 1523, for Lord Christopher Gallarato of Milan. After many years, I returned, and his brother, amazed, said to me, "Certainly, I have seen a great example because our mother passed away that same year, exactly as my brother's birth chart predicted, so many years in advance, in terms of timing and the ailment."

“However, not only in these instances but also concerning one's children and one's spouse, it is essential to examine their individual birth charts for a more accurate assessment. I do not see how my birth chart could directly influence my brothers, parents, spouse, or children. If it is not through a causal mechanism but only through the astrological sign, we would exceed the boundaries of natural philosophy, which guides us in creating this art. However, they do have some influence through a causal mechanism, but it would take a lengthy explanation to elaborate on this. Nevertheless, I can anticipate what you are about to say: if the Moon represents the mother and life, as it does in our birth chart, then nearly all sons would die when either the father or mother dies. In diurnal charts, the Sun represents the father and often the life of the offspring as well. However, this rarely occurs, and when it does, it is due to general causes such as plague, disaster, catastrophe, or famine. Thus, I say that these events may cause harm, but since the natal chart provides specific indications, it can happen that in these cases, a son dies without the father, and the father dies without the son. They are also influenced by various considerations, as you can see. For example, Jupiter acts as an abscisor concerning the mother when it comes into contact with the Moon, but it confirms life concerning me, and it adds strength because it is a friend of the Moon. This is analogous to two brothers quarreling over their paternal inheritance and being in agreement during a common lawsuit, where they neither agree nor disagree. However, when seeking revenge for a relative, they are in full agreement, just as the same two people, and even four or more, have different emotional reactions when compared to various individuals. Therefore, dear reader, you should understand that this art alone is so profound that it can never be fully taught. Besides what is written in this book, it requires a unique insight and extensive experience, coupled with a deep commitment to the pursuit of truth.”

About the Wife

I directed my attention to the Moon, the ruler of the ascendant, and its opposition to Venus. It reached this position when I was 31 years old. Similarly, I looked at the trine aspect between the Moon in the twelfth part of Cancer and Mars, the ruler of the seventh house, and it reached this position in 31 years, 9 months, and 24 days. On that very day, I got married, although I had never thought about it before.

About Siblings

Jupiter is responsible for the birth of the first among siblings. Therefore, all the older siblings passed away, especially because the Moon was the ruler of the third house and was in a square aspect with Mars. Mars, the significator of siblings, was in a foreign sign and was with Saturn, in a trine aspect with the Sun. I could still have siblings at that point, but they were all wiped out by a plague, with me being the first affected. Hence, this interpretation was plausible.

About Children

The lord of the fifth house is Mercury, and it is in conjunction with Venus. It signifies weak male children because it is in Libra. In the sixth house, Jupiter and the Moon in mutual reception represent much stronger female children. Saturn weakened the male children, and I will provide the birth charts of my sons as examples. The ascendant of the firstborn is between the opposing parts of the malefics in my birth chart. The Moon is in the place of Saturn, and Saturn is in a square aspect with Venus and Mercury. The cause of life is Jupiter, the ruler of the ascendant, in a trine aspect with the Sun. He will earn and spend many things here. However, Jupiter is with the Tail of the Dragon in opposition to Mars, approaching. In this chart, the position of Mars and the ascendant is the same as in the previous one, but all the planets are falling. However, in a girl's chart, it doesn't matter as I mentioned before, since women's fortunes depend on others, not themselves. Venus signifies masculinity, and the Moon is in a sextile aspect with it. Again, in this third son's chart, the ascendant is in opposition to the Moon and in a square aspect with Mars. The Moon was in the same place as in my birth chart. Although he had convulsions in the first part of infancy due to the Moon and was afflicted by Mars, which caused illnesses through overheating of the entire body, illnesses that no man could endure, he survived. Venus was the ruler of the Alfridaria and Jupiter looked at Mars with a trine aspect. From this, it is evident that the birth charts of children change the fortunes of their parents. In this chart, the Sun, which had declined fame and honors more than before, increased them, as if I had never had them before.

About Wealth

After life, riches are desired, and Mercury is the dispositor, along with Venus. It is impossible to be without wealth because of this, but since it is in Libra, it easily acquires it. Mars in the second house and Saturn make it unlikely for me to ever become rich. I am close to or have already experienced a significant loss of patrimony. Saturn's opposition will reach Mercury, and after two years, their sextile aspect will occur, and then I will be in a better position. Jupiter, in sextile with the Moon, mutually receiving each other, grants something, but it is meager.

About the Art (Profession)

The tenth house is in Aquarius, ruled by Saturn in conjunction with Mercury. Because it is related to humanity, Mars also affects it, so it will be related to people. Saturn's connection with the fixed signs and Mars being in a trine with the Sun and Mercury, the ruler of the ascendant, and the Sun in the sixth house all indicate nobility and involvement with the sick. This is especially true because my father was a physician, and I became a physician even though I did not want to, as my father insisted. It is clear that I will be very successful in my profession because Saturn is well-placed concerning both fixed and mutable signs. However, I won't achieve great renown until later because Saturn, Mercury, and Mars fall away from the angles and are retrograde, and they are not in the most powerful positions.

About Fame and Power

Fame in life follows power. Mars is the ruler of the tenth house and is in a trine aspect with the Sun. Therefore, I will have modest fame in life and less power. The powerful will despise me because the Sun is setting. Nevertheless, among those who possess dignities due to the fall of luminaries, I will be something, but after death, when the Lesser Dog is in the bottom of the sky, I will become more famous. There, Venus and Mercury are in a square aspect, but still, it won't be a great thing yet. Saturn, with the benefic stars, will aggrandize fame and preserve it through the centuries. The directions of honors occur at ages 23, 24, 33, 35, 46, 53, 62, and 67.

About Character

Jupiter, Venus, the Moon, Mercury, Saturn, and Mars influence character, but Venus, Jupiter, and the Moon prevail.

About Appearance

Jupiter and Venus contribute to one's appearance, and so does the Moon. Hence, due to Mars, I have a mark on my forehead because it is in a square aspect with the Moon, but everything else aligns.

About Death

Mars is the ruler of the seventh house and is in a malefic angle, so death will not be without mentioning bloodshed, as it implies violence. The Moon is also in the circle of the Gorgon's head, as mentioned before. However, Saturn is the separator, but it is also associated with bright fixed stars. The rest has already been explained above.

We finally come to Nero, the subject of a very learned encomium written in 1562 by Cardano, almost certainly for nothing other than shock value and reputation. Cardano tells us that Nero was born "In the year of Christ 38, on the 14th of June, at sunrise, the true Nero Caesar." I should mention that Wikipedia, again, tells us otherwise (saying he was born on the 15th of December, 37 AD). The analysis is as follows, a rather short one compared to the rest:

"This is the true birth chart of Nero, no more similar to snow than to the deeds, character, and fortune of Nero, who, with cruelty, defiled his brother, wife, mother, and finally the city itself with fire; he tainted his body with debaucheries, and his soul with all kinds of bloody crimes. Even though he had a restless spirit for such deeds, he had a strong constitution. He gained control over the world through his mother's deception at the age of 18, but he lost both power and life at the age of 32, forced by fear of public punishment to take his own life."

We now move onto the man I can only dream to be a fraction of, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. I view Mirandola as the most learned man while he lived, and this may come as some shock considering he was a contemporary of Erasmus, Fazio Cardano, and Leonardo Da Vinci. His precocity for learning and study rivaled that, I say with complete seriousness, of the great Hugo Grotius. Cardano gives the date of Mirandola’s birth as "On February 24, 1463, at 1:42 PM."

"Behold the true birth chart of the one who falsely accused astrology, but not without reason. The Moon in a square with Saturn and Mercury, as they are in their own houses and fixed signs, and Saturn being the lord of the chart, bestows a profound memory, a sharp intellect for studies, and unwavering perseverance. However, since the Moon was in the eighth house, it indicates a troubled mind, and because the square aspect is present, it clouds judgment. It is evident, even clearer than light, that he would accumulate wealth, for Mars is in the second house. Nevertheless, his purse was not empty, for the Sun is in a trine with Mars, and Mars is in its own house. However, as both of them are in the watery triplicity, they confer a glorious reputation. The fallen state of mind, disconnected from one's lineage, is attributed to all the planets falling from the angles, except for Jupiter, who falls in Capricorn. It is necessary for such a person to have a short life, as only the Moon, which is close to the Earth, receives the rays of Saturn and Mercury, and is hindered by Mars. If it were not for the support of the Sun's sextile and its placement in its own house, death would have come in infancy. Therefore, he lived for thirty-three years. His death was predicted by an astrologer in the same year, who had also written against him."

Next, we have one Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, perhaps the most learned man to follow Mirandola. He is no doubt most famous for his three books on Occult philosophy, and his books still serve as the modern tradition for Western Esotericism. He, like Cardano, Grotius, Mirandola, Varro, and Aristotle, studied all things one could have studied at the time, a true polymath and a beautiful representation of the Renaissance man! Cardano tells us his date of birth lands “On September 14, 1486, at 3:24 PM.”

“I never cease to say that everything happens by some necessity. While I was contemplating the addition of birth charts, by chance, Georgius Ioachimus (Rheticus) came to Italy from Germany, a courteous man and moderately well-versed in mathematics. First and foremost, he was initially very obliging and sincere. He voluntarily offered me the birth charts of illustrious men that he had with him. Among them were Vessalius, Johannes Montregius (Regiomontanus), Cornelius Agrippa, Poliziano, Jacobus Mycillus, and Osiander; some of which I added to this work to complete the centenary. I rejected two of them, though.”

“Now, to get to the point, some things must be said about this man. He was born in poverty but pretended to know many things he had barely glimpsed, thanks to the dishonesty of the times. He rose to the position of legal advisor and ascended to the pinnacle of royal scribes. This is indicated by Jupiter in a square to the Sun. Both were in a fallen state, in mutable signs, and also distant from the angles. This signifies that his career was beyond his homeland, with moderate benefits, and that he would eventually fall from that dignity, at least in terms of reputation, if not in nature. This is similar to what happened to a certain doctor who was publicly prohibited from practicing, and his academic robes were permanently taken away.”

“And because Jupiter looked upon the Ascendant in a trine aspect, it indicated affability, urbanity, even to buffoonery, as it was falling from its own place and also from the Ascendant, while being opposite its own domicile.”

“And because the Ascendant was in the beginning of Virgo, and Mercury itself was the ruler of the house, exaltation, and trine, and also because there was a star signifying the nature of Mercury and Venus, it signifies that he was entirely Mercurial, as they say, meaning ingenious, versatile, changeable, deceitful, and studious. He composed a book on occult philosophy in which he assembled a thousand absurdities, with nothing of substance. Such a book deserves to be burned, as it misleads people both by its arguments and by the empty reputation of its author. He wrote some other works as well, among them one on fires, although I haven't seen it. Other small works reached our friends.”

“And because Uranus was in the degree of the Ascendant, it signified an exceedingly sharp, sarcastic, and evil-minded disposition, not suitable for learning. He wrote about the nativity of sciences, in which, apart from the weakness of his arguments, he also displayed his ignorance by discussing matters he didn't understand. It pleased many fools, as much due to the arguments as to the empty reputation of the author. He wrote other things, too, but I haven't seen them.”

“And because Jupiter is falling and is struck by the rays of the unfortunate Sun, and the Sun is in the second house, it indicated that he would die in poverty, and so he did, in misery.”

“And because the Moon was in a trine aspect with Venus and in sextile with Mars, it signified inheritance and riches through women. I don't know if he had them. Since all the planets were foreign and in Earth signs, and the rulers of the Ascendant were in their respective signs, it indicates many travels on land.”

“And because Saturn and Mars are in the angles, and Mars is in the middle of the sky, it signifies prison, torture, and public death. And so he was captured as a heretic, due to the Tail in the Ascendant, and he remained in prison for more than a year. He was released because Mars was being directed by the sextile of the Moon and Venus, and there was no malefic aspect. He was a learned man of great reputation. An astrologer should take into consideration what was said in the third chapter of this book regarding this matter. He died when the Ascendant reached the square aspect of Jupiter, and he died when it reached the sextile of Saturn, which was the enemy of the Ascendant.”

“And because Saturn looked upon the Ascendant in a square aspect, he couldn't be handsome or entirely good, except that both influences were mitigated by Jupiter's trine aspect.”

“And because Saturn looked upon the Sun with a sextile aspect, it indicates that he had property, honors, dignities, and perseverance in certain matters. It also suggests that he would become renowned in the world. As the Sun was in a square aspect to Jupiter, it signifies some form of power, which is why he became a lawyer and held a magistracy.”

“And because the Head was in the west, it signifies death by strangulation or poison.”

“And because Mars was with Orion's right shoulder, it indicated that he had qualities of Mars and Mercury, that he would make things with his own hands like a craftsman, and that he was industrious and highly talented in this regard. As Mars was potent and looked at Venus and Mercury, it signifies that he was incontinent with women, and because Saturn was in an angle, it indicated hardships and also bad behavior due to Mars. Since the heart of the sky was in the 24th degree of Taurus, with the rays of the Moon and Venus, which were dominant at that time, it signifies that the source and beginning of his power were through women.”

“And because the Moon was in the eighth house in Aries, it signified that he took pleasure in quadrupeds more than was proper.”

We now move onto a man who was probably the greatest living mathematician of his time, Johannes Müller von Königsberg, known by his Latin pseudonym Regiomontanus. He compiled all the mathematics that was known in his time, especially that of trigonometry. He essentially laid the groundwork for modern mathematics. His work was only superseded by that of Luca Pacioli’s Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalita (Summary of arithmetic, geometry, proportions, and proportionality) and Nicolaus Copernicus’ De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres). Cardano gives his date of birth as "On June 6, at the 4th hour, 40 minutes after noon, in the year 1436."

“While Mercury is in his own house and in the trine of Jupiter, and near the eye of Taurus, and the Head is in the same degree as the rising sign, these factors cannot satisfy the magnitude of the works, the industry, and the genius of a slow man. Neither can Saturn's square with the Sun and Mars signify this. Indeed, Mars, Sun, and Moon in the eighth house, in a square with Saturn, would have denied life.

But this is monstrous, as it sometimes happens in other natural things to witness certain monstrosities. Perhaps the presence of the Moon with the belt of Orion in the same part accomplishes this. Therefore, talent and genius seem to be apparent here, while other things depend on revolutions. But why are we surprised about this, when Monteregius ascribes many of his works to the labors of others? Tables of directions, for the most part, are the work of Ioannis de Blanchinis (Giovanni Bianchini) of Italy. It is known that Monteregius saw them when he speaks of aspects. There is an epitome of someone from Milan, from before the birth of Purbach Monteregius, the master. The entire invention of the Books on Spherical Triangles is of a Spanish Jew, long before Monteregius was born. The Ephemerides were invented before he was born; I had the Ephemeris of the year 1412.”

We now move onto the last geniture chart I wish to translate in De exemplis centum geniturarum, that being of Lodovico Ferrari. Lodovico, like Alciati, had a biography written on him by Cardano, which I will reproduce here shortly. He was Cardano’s protégé in mathematics; he defended his master from the threats and slanders of Tartaglia, while at the same time being responsible for solving the famously hard quartic equation. Cardano said of him in his De Vita Propria Liber that he was his most learned student and surpassed all those Cardano taught due to his intellect. Cardano tells us he was born "1522, February 2nd, at 4:00 PM, in Bologna."

“Because Jupiter, Venus, and Mercury are close to the heart of the sky, they signify great fame in terms of knowledge and science. And because they are in a foreign place, this fame will come from abroad. Especially since Jupiter is in the ninth house, and because they are in the middle of my sky, and the Moon is close to Jupiter's place and the ascendant of our natal chart. Also, the Sun, Saturn, and Mars are in the position of the trigon of the radiating Venus and Mercury. Saturn in our natal chart signified that this would be our cause. All the planets correspond to the planets in our natal chart.

Furthermore, because the Moon is in the ascendant in Taurus, it indicates a robust nature. However, since the Sun is with both infortunes (Saturn and Mars), there will be great calamities at some point in life from which he will be in a life-threatening situation. Generally, though, he will be fortunate and of great renown.

So, born in Bologna, with his grandfather still alive in Milan, in the year 14, when he reached Milan, he was ignorant of letters. But staying with us, he accomplished so much that by the age of 18, he began publicly teaching arithmetic, and from there, he delved into architecture, geography, and astrology to such an extent that I believe, by the time he turns 25, he will have no equal in these fields. He also excelled in both Greek and Latin letters. His achievements will attest to this unless, due to some violent chance, to which he is particularly susceptible, he is robbed of them, as I mentioned before.”

"Life of Ludovico Ferrari, of Bologna, Described by H. Cardano"

"Ludovico Ferrari's grandfather was Bartholomaeus Ferrarius, a native of Milan, who, when exiled, took refuge in Bologna and had two sons, Vincent and Alexander. Ludovico was born to Alexander. When his father was killed, Ludovico went to live with his uncle. His cousin, Lucas, also fled his father and came to Milan. After staying with me for a while, Lucas secretly returned to Bologna. Ludovico's father complained to me about Lucas and sent for his nephew, who was then fifteen years old, even though he had come as a servant and was not well-educated. Nonetheless, he was so charming and showed such natural talent that I employed him as my secretary in Mantua. He later learned Latin, Greek, and mathematics. When he turned eighteen, he began to teach publicly, earning admiration from everyone who knew him. Two years later, he was summoned to Rome by the Procurator of Gaul, Brisacco, and by a wealthy Venetian, as well as by Cardinal Mantuan and the future Emperor. He succeeded in obtaining a position with the cardinal, who, in the same year, appointed his brother Ferdinand Gonzaga as prefect of the province, responsible for measuring the Milanese fields. Ludovico received a yearly salary of almost four hundred coronati for this work. I had advised him against leaving and suggested that he be content with his current situation, which was already somewhat uncertain. He was aware that life is short, old age rare, and that whatever he loved or desired, he should not crave too excessively.

However, he had already ensnared himself. He left and received nearly four thousand coronati in eight years, which was considerably more than three thousand after all living expenses. The cardinal provided him with two servants and a horse. Unfortunately, he contracted a disease that his intemperate habits aggravated. Although the cardinal treated him with kindness and he had not lacked any service, Ludovico became angry, believing that his fortune, which he attributed to fate or himself, should not have been accepted from the cardinal. In his displeasure, he left for Bologna and went to live with his sister Magdalene, whom he loved dearly. There, he built a comfortable house and lived quite well despite his ailment. Upon my arrival in Bologna, I was appointed to the position of public mathematics instructor. Ludovico died suddenly before he had reached twenty years of age, and there were suspicions of poison. His sister inherited his property, but she married within fifteen days, leading to suspicions that the marriage had been planned in advance. Moreover, she did not shed a single tear at his funeral, revealing her wicked nature. She also granted her new husband everything, further infuriating those who knew her brother, but they shed tears while her patrimony went to others. Ludovico left no books, for some unknown reason. He was focused on collecting certain sayings of authors. I believe he did not have a clear rationale for this. Nevertheless, he corrected Caesar's Commentaries and enriched them with illustrations. His sister's husband, Sororius, took over this task, stating that he wanted his son, who is not a Ferrari but Magdalene's stepson, to publish these works someday. Such was the unfortunate life of Ludovico Ferrari, unmatched in mathematics but lacking wisdom in worldly affairs, and showing little piety toward God. He cursed him and all the gods habitually and was consumed by such violent anger that I seldom approached him and dared not speak to him. He was born in the year 1522 on the 2nd of February, with an ascendant at the 21st degree of Aries, and his Moon was in the sign of Jupiter. At the age of seventeen, he was wounded in the left hand, causing almost all his fingers to be amputated. Henceforth, he suffered from this injury and deformity. He was of short stature, had a pleasant countenance, spoke charmingly, was prudent in matters of little importance, dressed elegantly, had a small but not unattractive nose, and possessed a rosy complexion. In short, he was attractive from every angle. He passed away in the year 1565, in October.”

Translation of certain genitures from Geniturarum exempla (Examples of Birth Charts)

After going through this particular book already, I found two genitures that stood out to me and which will be translated: geniture 8 and 12, with 8 belonging to "Hieronymi Cardani, the physician and expositor of this work" and 12 belonging to "Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam, a Batavian." Now, I know we already did both in the De exemplis centum geniturarum, but Cardano seems to have added more onto each of these. Let's start with the shorter of the two genitures, Erasmus. Before I do this, however, allow me to translate the preface to this work.

PREFACE

In the previous part of the work, the writings of Ptolemy and the science itself were presented to the best of human ability, so that if anything is entirely missing, it may be included in the book on Indices to be published again. What is less complete here is as follows: the knowledge of the entire sky visually, the positions of the stars, the correction of some things that seem to be lacking for an exact understanding of the locations and movements of Saturn, Mars, and Mercury, and an adapted description of the meanings of the stars in Europe, especially in Italy.

A table of stars called signiferous and regal, including their magnitudes, powers, positions, right ascension, and obliquity. A treatise on general matters of the world, although this part is somewhat less explained by Ptolemy than is expedient for such an undertaking. Some necessary tables for certain operations. Along with these, a method of constructing the most accurate instrument for sighting, usable for any altitude and for any latitude of the stars and for any circles of positions. Some causes and instructions for rare events.

Examples, not so carefully considered, but far more numerous, such as 200 nativities with entirely different events and marvels, some even calculated for months, days, and hours. Here, however, we have selected twelve Genesis nativities worthy of admiration, illustrious in their events and circumstances, calculated with the utmost diligence, of which we have a clear understanding of their lives. Of these, seven are of the living, four of those who have died in the past, and one that was begun while the King of England, Edward VI, was alive, but is currently being edited since the young king has passed away. This nativity is remarkable not only for the great fortune of the king but also for his virtue and the role of chance, surpassing and equaling fortune.

GENITURA XII
Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam

“When the greatest examples of a humble origin were presented, this certainly is the greatest. A man born of humble parentage, he drew the admiration of all kings. He received letters and gifts from everyone. Many of them provided him with an annual stipend. The highest Pontiffs wrote to him; they offered him the Cardinal's hat. Born in poverty, he died in wealth. Always ailing, he reached the age of 70 when he died. Barbarous by birth, most elegant in speech. Worthy to be cherished and read among you, as if he were destined by fate. He wrote so much that his writings might seem casual. So diligently, that they might be considered his only writings. In the end, this little man was invincible while he lived, although he suffered great envy.”

“But to the point: Erasmus was born in the small town of Rotterdam in Batavia, now called Holland, a region situated between the Rhine and the Meuse rivers. To the left is the sea, to the right is the River Rotter; it has an altitude of about 54 degrees. It's not far from the emporium of Antwerp. Therefore, Erasmus, born in that city, when he had Saturn in the west in Aries, was perpetually tormented by kidney stones. But when Mars was in Pisces and in the sixth house, he predicted he would suffer from a short but recurring gout, which indeed happened.

The Moon in Scorpio, under the Sun and with the node, caused very severe illnesses, originating from the brain. Innumerable dangers of violent death, a life without a wife and children, leading a humble life, suffering from a great scandal, adopting a bad plan in his youth, and thus leading a miserable life, and even some secret vices regarding the genitals, he predicted. Venus and Mercury in the horoscope with Spica and in Jupiter's trine granted him knowledge of seven languages and theology, which made him known to the whole world and especially to princes.”

“These same planets also gave him the charm and elegance of speech. Jupiter was with almost the same stars as Saturn is to us. The lords of the qualities of the soul were Mercury, Saturn, Venus, and Mars. Hence, being rich, he was content with an unknown bookseller. From there, so many torches, spurs, triumphs, and wars flowed. Venus, unhampered by Saturn, sets trigonally from the signs of short ascensions. There was a sextile in the horoscope from the signs of long ascensions. Moreover, as far as the Part of Fortune is concerned, from the beginning, it was retrograde and unfavorable to Saturn, indicating poverty, not destitution. Then, with Mercury, Jupiter, and Venus as lords in excellent positions, and with wandering stars and in the western quadrants, they announced significant wealth in old age, as they were.”

“However, you should remember that in the case of Venus and Mercury, both their conjunctions with the Sun should be called eastern elongations when they are at their greatest distance to the east from the Sun and western elongations when they are at their greatest distance to the west. This means they are considered morning stars before the Sun rises and evening stars after the Sun sets.”

“All of the above has been explained. Therefore, in the world, they have all appeared in the west, not towards the Sun. The arrangement of Jonas [probably referring to an astrological chart] with the wandering stars contributes to the composition of children. These books are records of many years, just like cities. However, this is not straightforward but is configured with the lord of the ascendant and the quality of the soul's location. The quality of the soul relates to invention, while the ascendant relates to execution and labor. He had a small and lean body, delightful due to Venus in the ascendant, and charming. However, Saturn in the west in Aries, opposite the ascendant, made him small and lean.”

“When Saturn ruled the place of Mercury, he was very patient with labor. Jupiter was in the same circle with the magnitude of the first nature of Mars and Mercury, which did not suit him well. The reason for many journeys outside his homeland, where he was constantly far away, was the Sun and the Moon in the dignities of Mars. Even if they do not fall from the angles, Mars himself does. Furthermore, times of happiness from the age of 32 when the Medium of the sky applies sextile to Venus. The increase and priesthood from the age of 42 when the Sun is opposite Jupiter. Some recognition from the age of 25 when the Medium of the sky is square to the Sun. It is evident from this that since Mars is poorly affected in this nativity, Saturn also, and he himself will not be in a better state than extreme old age, and from the age of 41 to 56, it is necessary to consider nothing for the division of ages, as I have said before, whether the lords of these are well or ill-disposed, but only to examine the progressions and ingresses.”

GENESIS VIII
Gerolamo Cardano, a physician and expositor of this work

"I had promised to include only illustrious genitures here, which I have done up to this point. However, if I were to add our own, someone would rightfully accuse us of levity. For not only is fortune far from illustrious, but also the variety of circumstances. Even if it were not illustrious, it should not be omitted since it has been scrutinized so precisely that you can hardly find a similar example. It has also been confirmed in the previous edition, as many events have occurred publicly over the past decade, and nothing was foreseen. In fact, what has happened throughout my life fits so precisely with this figure that it seems I have submitted a history rather than a prediction and a decree from the stars. So, to surpass all previous fortunes, it is even more remarkable with the variety of circumstances.

Firstly, from an old father who is said to have had no other children before us. Then, I was extracted through violence from the womb when my mother had been in labor for three days, to save her as I was presumed dead. I was revived with a wine bath. I had hair before birth, which indicated troubles to come. For my hair was extremely long and thick at birth, as my mother herself narrated. In my early infancy, I experienced a great pestilence, the source of many evils. Later, in the eighth year, I was brought to the brink of death by dysentery but miraculously survived. From that time on, although I have never been in good health and have rarely spent a day without pain, I only laid in bed for three whole days and was afflicted with illness only once during the following 44 years.

I have endured so many hardships and difficulties that, after almost fifty-two years, I am now stronger than I ever was in childhood or youth. I was frigid until the age of 30, then, unexpectedly, became fertile and fathered many sons against all expectations. For adversities have harmed me the least, and favorable events have benefited me the most. It seems that nothing wished for or unexpected, good or bad, has befallen me from anyone. So much so that I obtained only the laurel of medicine and co-optation into the College of Physicians, and that only when all hope was lost. On the other hand, I left all honors willingly, including the first position in the academy, the title of Archiatron, the familiarity and friendship of several princes, and the public honors from the citizens.

My memory has been celebrated by many learned men more for things less sought after than received. I only took on the duty of teaching reluctantly, rather than voluntarily. Conversely, I suffered rejection in some matters that I had diligently sought out, and from this, I endured the rejection of lesser individuals. Oh, how often, when I appeared to be in deep misery, did fortune suddenly shine forth from where I least expected help. How many times, abandoned and betrayed by friends, was I aided by strangers? How many great ills have produced great good for me, and conversely, how many great evils have sprung from great good? When they called me insane in my youth, they provided an opportunity for writing and some glory, no matter how small. And now, those who once despised me or even hated me are numerous among my admirers. How many times I was accused through calumny, but never did exile or prison, the most severe penalty of all, come close to me, although my fellow citizens, to whom nothing is more serious than the truth itself and free speech, cried out to crucify me.

Even when I had no natural wisdom, I was clearly warned through dreams more than once and thus escaped great dangers. Nor did those who attempted it ever escape unpunished. I was also taught many things that I should have written as if they had been revealed to me by the special care of some higher power. I have been a despiser of riches and glory: what others avoid, I have not shunned to such an extent that what can hardly be believed should be believed, because I remember never lying, that during the most severe pains of gout, the only ailment left to me, I derive pleasure from the pain. How this happens, I do not know, unless because, after frequently piercing the flesh with my left thumb, I used to alleviate the discomfort caused by my body, which afflicted me daily, and I experienced pleasure there. How many times I enter ecstasy at will, without changing my countenance or moving my body, but with an inner movement that I do not know, which is moved or changed according to the will's command or without it.

And, since I have been successful in many intentions, I have written more than I have read, taught more than I have learned. I have been helped not obscurely by a divine presence, to which I attribute everything. In short, in this life, which has been so harsh for our age, disgraceful, burdensome for our country, and heavy for the public, the death of a most excellent and noble son, in which, incredibly, I bore more and wrote more afterward, I moved to a different region and became more famous due to that misfortune, where all others quickly fall. Hence, so many publications, many more writings, and much more discovery.

If you gather all of these, they can make a more worthy example than the riches of Croesus. For we are not seeking an image of happiness but rather those things that are the greatest for each person, whether good or bad. In this regard, there are many such things scattered throughout our birth chart. There are also many other things worthy of admiration, which will be written about in the explanation of the birth chart.”

Wandering stars in prominent positions

“Jupiter rises close to the Ascendant due to its latitude, and it shines brightly. In the constellation of Aquarius, which shares the qualities of Venus and Mercury's first nature, is situated near the Midheaven. In the western part of the sky, the Southern Cross, which belongs to the second magnitude of the nature of Ion and Mars, shines more brightly. In the southern part of the sky, Mercury, belonging to the second magnitude of the nature of Mars, is quite bright. Near the nadir, you can find Canis Minor or Procyon, which is of the first magnitude and belongs to the nature of Mercury. The Sun is in the far-left wing of Virgo, sharing the qualities of Mercury and a bit of Venus, belonging to the fourth magnitude of its nature.”

In this chart, I have followed the ancient division of houses due to the reasons mentioned above.

“The Moon is located near the Head of Medusa, of the second magnitude and sharing the nature of Saturn and Jupiter, in the circle of position. Mercury is in the lowest circle of position with a little star of its own nature and Venus's nature. Saturn is positioned with the right shoulder of Orion, of the first magnitude, and with the right shoulder of Auriga, of the second magnitude, both sharing the nature of Mars and Mercury. And with a little star of the nature of Mars. The time of conception was also known according to the mother's statement, and it was in the year 1500, on the 28th of December, at 11:30 in the morning, and at that time, the sky was as follows.”

“The days were 270 in total, but I am not entirely certain about the hour. In the birth chart, this was the position of Jupiter, and at the time of my birth, Venus was in aspect with Saturn. Mars was in opposition to its own position in the nativity. Perhaps the horoscope was the position of the Sun at the time of birth, and the Part of Fortune was once again under the rays of the Sun.”

Regarding my parents:

I have already explained my father's genealogy, extracted from our own. There is no need to repeat anything beyond the usual. He passed away on August 28, 1524, as can be seen from the direction of the Moon, opposite the Sun. You will deduce the year, month, and day from the progressions. However, since Saturn was in the trine of Venus, it indicated a long life for the age at which he was already established. Similarly, because he was in his dignities and Mercury was in the trine of Saturn, and Saturn himself was in the dignities of Mercury, it indicated an ingenious nature. Mars, in trine with the dignity of the Sun but with little benefit, for Mars was a stranger and almost stationary, and the Sun was setting. However, since the Moon was in the middle of the sky, under the rays of Mars squared, it indicated many frustrated labors he struggled with and a feeble life. As the part of fortune was unfortunate, it indicated poverty and labor. And through all these, he passed. However, because I have his own birth chart, I will present it for greater clarity.

Planets in significant positions:

The Ascendant, along with Apollo, of the second magnitude and the nature of Mercury, and the Belt of Orion, co-ascended with the nature of Saturn and Jupiter. The Sun, with Ass, of the fourth magnitude and the nature of the Sun and Mars. Saturn, with the northern foot of Cancer, of the fifth magnitude and the nature of Saturn and Mercury. Jupiter, with a star outside the shape of Cancer, of the fourth magnitude and the nature of Saturn and Mercury. Mars, with a star of the fourth magnitude, of the nature of Mercury and a little of Venus. Venus, with the same star, along with Saturn. Remarkable piety reminds me not to forget her, especially since this birth chart has many excellent qualities, and knowledge of it contributes significantly to our understanding.

“Because the Sun was the significator of life and was in conjunction with Jupiter and Venus in Leo, it gave him a strong and healthy life. He lived until the square aspect of Mars with the Sun occurred in Libra, where both fall within the bounds of Saturn. He died at the age of 79, on August 28, 1524. Thus, in his old age, he was easily overcome by the square aspect of Mars, leading to a slow death. Saturn, who was the lord of the end he had reached, was in conjunction with the Sun's rays. His father also had a long life indicated by the Sun. He survived for 27 years beyond the age of 56 and lived to be 86. However, the same was not true for his mother because the Moon and Venus were in unfortunate positions. This shows that one's own birth chart signifies one thing and a robust life, while ours signifies something different and a weaker life. Nevertheless, they agree because I was born when he was 56 years old, and shortly after, he lost his teeth.”

Because the Sun was in conjunction with the Ass, and the Moon was unfortunate in the sixth house within the Milky Way, he had white eyes like a cat—small but shining at night. He could see reasonably well without glasses. However, since Saturn was combust and in Cancer, it indicated the loss of all teeth. He survived this accident for 21 years. Perhaps the little star that was with Saturn or the Ass with the Sun contributed something to this calamity.

But he was handsome because Jupiter and the Moon were in the Ascendant's position. Therefore, he had fair skin, a rosy complexion, was plump, and moderate in size. Because Venus was unfortunate with the Sun and Saturn, he drank white arsenic at the age of 23. He also consumed poisonous mercury at the age of 59 and survived, although he lost all his teeth due to the earlier poisoning that affected everyone he was with, and they were always weak afterward. However, he remained healthy, except that he constantly suffered from palpitations of the heart. Since the Moon was in the Milky Way, he had a slightly cloudy and dull intellect. But because the Moon formed a trine aspect with Mercury by ray, and both were in the dignities of Jupiter, he became a learned mathematician, legal expert, not unskilled in medicine, and a great professor of the occult sciences, so much so that he admitted to having a familiar spirit. This happened because the Moon was in the sixth house in Sagittarius. Furthermore, he had a moist brain due to the weakness of the Moon and a weak stomach due to the conjunction of Venus with Saturn, especially in Cancer.

As for his character, Jupiter ruled in the place of the Moon and Mercury because the Sun doesn't take rulership. Since Jupiter was in conjunction with the Sun and was weakest in its house, it indicated a man of unblemished goodness and justice, yet depressed and despondent. However, because the Sun was in conjunction with the unfortunate Saturn, it made him timid, rustic, neglectful of affairs, hasty in all things, achieving nothing, servile in spirit, rigid, and neglectful of his own. Since the Sun receives rulership due to the weakness of Jupiter, it made him desirous of public affairs and eager to know about general matters and the business of princes. For this reason, he was stern and truthful. Because Jupiter was ruling, it made him studious, and Saturn with Venus made him a lover of labor, yet lazy, as both were with the Sun. However, the Belt of Orion rising with the Ascendant, and Apollo in it, made him capable of bearing the labor of studies without discomfort.

He was, in fact, exceedingly studious, if any mortal ever was, and certainly, I say it with due respect, with little profit for such great labors. He acquired modest wealth because Jupiter, the lord of the Lot, was mixed with the Sun, but it was under the rays and in the western part. Nevertheless, both of them looked to the Ascendant by trine aspect. Therefore, in his youth, he acquired something, but in old age, having abandoned his profession and judging duties, he focused only on teaching, in accordance with the decrees of my birth chart. He kept what he had acquired in his youth, which indicated poverty, as my birth chart had shown. In this way, he executed it. For, as you can see, my father's impoverished lot in Scorpio, whose lord was Mars, and he himself was a foreigner in the trine aspect of a foreign Sun, left nothing for profit, except for a meager public stipend awarded by the Sun. Thus, you see how dissimilar things are brought into harmony.

Similarly, my father's own birth chart belongs to the fourth status, which resulted in his being in the prime of life, the lord of life and death, since he was a procurator of the treasury (for everything must be interpreted according to the customs of the place). But after his birth, it became the sixth status, removed from all office and dignity in the future, except for the teaching profession. You see harmony from all sides. He barely married due to an afflicted Moon, and he did so in old age, because the Moon was in the second quadrant of the West after the conjunction and at its end, thus indicating old age. It also indicated a perpetual dispute due to Venus in conjunction with Saturn. However, there was only one wife, as only Mercury was aspected by the Moon, applying to no other planet and separating from none. But concerning children, Jupiter and the Moon, which gave two daughters, promised a son as Venus, the oriental planet, was in conjunction with a masculine planet and configured to the Midheaven, indicating the lord of the place, which promised a son. Although Saturn was approaching, the place was also afflicted by the square of the Moon, which followed Saturn and had dignity in that place.

The birth chart indicates that my father had other sons who died, and I alone survived long after his death. There was harmony between the birth charts, as the place of Jupiter in the eleventh house was in square aspect to my Ascendant, and the place of Venus in the Midheaven, along with the place of the Moon, was configured to my Ascendant. Venus, the bestower of children, was configured to Saturn once again.

As for my mother's birth chart, because her birth was at night, I placed the Moon in the place of the Ascendant. Consequently, the Sun became the significator of life. Around the age of 20, through proper solar direction, it came to the Western horizon, opposite the Moon, and square to Mars. She frequently suffered from hysterical fits until her death. Finally, I directed the Sun properly to oppose Mars, which occurred at the end of her 36th year, and that is when she passed away.

Since Mars aspected the Ascendant and squared the Moon, it indicated that she was irascible and prone to facial injuries. She was injured twice: first, as a girl when a piece of her chin was cut off due to a pestilential ulcer. Then, by accidental fire when I was 16 years old. Saturn was in the lowest point of the chart, and the Sun was in an angle with Venus and Mercury, indicating that she was held in higher esteem than my father.

Regarding her personality, as she is a woman, I won't go into further detail, except to say that she was ingenious, wise, generous, and upright.

Regarding siblings:
Due to my mother's illness caused by the square aspect of Mars, who was stationary and therefore unable to cause death, and Jupiter in sextile indicating a long life, along with Venus configured in trine to Saturn, which granted my father a long life but not as much as my mother, as Venus is inherently stronger than Saturn, I had two brothers and one sister from the same mother.

My brother Thomas was 13 years old, my sister Catharina was eight, and my half-brother Io. Ambrosius was three years old from my father's previous marriage to Antonio Alberio. All of them passed away within 40 days of the general outbreak of the plague, which was consistent with their birth charts due to the prevailing constellation. I believe that my mother was the cause of this, as both I and she were afflicted by the plague when she was a girl. They were frail, as indicated by both the Moon and the Midheaven in the chart, and for this reason, they all perished, although they were not so weak that they couldn't have survived the general calamity. There was also another sibling born from both parents, but this sibling died at birth.

Regarding Gender:
The presence of a masculine planet in the Ascendant, the Moon in a masculine house, the Sun in a masculine sign, and Jupiter in the eastern part of the chart all leaned towards a male birth rather than a female one. Moreover, Venus, the common ruler of all the houses, which collects votes, is in a masculine sign, conjunct with a planet in a masculine house, and in aspect with masculine planets.

Regarding Number:
The primary three significant points were mostly in signs of the same nature, and there was no combination of bodies in bicorporeal signs, so there had to be only one.

Regarding Form:
It is clear that there was no monstrosity, as there were no malefics in angles.

Regarding Education:
The birth chart indicated a difficult upbringing due to the Moon being under the rays of malefic planets, and both luminaries declining from angles. However, because benefic planets were in the angles, and the luminaries were in dignities and aspects with benefic planets, and no malefic was in the angles, although I was forcefully extracted from the womb, semi-dead, and afflicted by the plague within a few months, I managed to overcome these difficulties fairly easily. This was partly due to Mars, which had initially afflicted the Moon, rising above the Sun.

About the Duration of Life:

“As I mentioned before, the Moon is in the middle of the eleventh house in its own trigon, so it is the Apheta, and I won't consider it in this context. But from two clear indications, in the eighth year, when it approached the square rays of Saturn, I almost perished. However, when the Ascendant approached the bodies of Mars and Saturn, both being peregrine and retrograde, having no dignity in the horoscope, and when the rays of the Moon squared, and the unfortunate Sun did not appear, only dangers emerged, even though it was the year of a great plague. And this happened because the Ascendant was not the Apheta, and the Moon was in Libra at that time, and perhaps the returns were powerful. Hence, the reason for futile perils is evident when the Apheta is afflicted, not the first; it thrives when it is well placed. Therefore, all astrologers, as well as I, made mistakes in judging my life, and I sought nonsense since I belonged to the long-lived class, while the cause was clear. And this error was the cause of great troubles for me. Therefore, it is better not to know than to misunderstand the arts correctly. And if someone asks why the Moon harmed, since it was the ruler of the Ascendant, not because it was the Apheta.”

“I say that I could not have survived with the Ascendant so afflicted. Therefore, it is the ruler of the Ascendant, and both Jupiter and Mars are looking at it, the lords of the place. It is also the ruler of the place. Besides, in the division of the eleventh house and in the middle of it, made according to the motion of the day, which is real and not of the position of the circles, which are imaginary, and they only serve direction and do not correspond to the position of the planets, nor are they of the nature of the horizon. For this circle is the real circle and has natural power because the star first emits its rays to the earth of that region.”

“Direct.” is simply a directive that means "Direct." "Me" likely refers to "Mercurius" (Mercury). "Coe" likely refers to "Coelum" (Heaven or Sky). "Solis" refers to "Sol" (the Sun). "Ascen" likely refers to "Ascendens" (Ascendant). "Lun" refers to "Luna" (the Moon). "duplic." likely refers to "duplex" (double). "Sortis" refers to "Sors" (Part of Fortune).

“At the time when Saturn's square rays reached the Moon at the end of the eighth year, and the planets, as you can see, afflicted both luminaries, especially the Moon and Venus, which was the ruler of the nativity, I suffered from fever and dysentery. It was remarkable that out of more than twenty descendants from my maternal grandfather, Jacobo Micherio, all the others died. Earlier, in the first month, due to the bad constitution of the Moon and the spreading plague, I was afflicted and survived while my other siblings and sister died. Similarly, in the fourth year, I suffered from ascites due to unfortunate breastfeeding, and I also survived against all odds. In the 21st year, I suffered from the plague again. In the 25th year, at the end of the eighth day of September (which was the end of the year), I gambled and lost a considerable amount of money. The next day, I wounded a Venetian patrician while I was at his house with a boy and two servants, and the door was locked. They couldn't pull out the spears of the master, and so, in fear, they opened the door and let me go, thinking I wouldn't do such a thing. After the second hour of the night, fearing the public authorities, I attempted to climb onto a ship from a skiff, and I fell into the sea in Venice. I was wearing armor underneath, and I didn't know how to swim. Still, I grabbed an oar and, against all expectations, was saved by sailors who pulled me back onto the ship. This happened because both Mars and the Moon had squared the Ascendant. The planetary hour at the time of my return was such that it corresponded to the square of the Moon's root and the progressions. In the 27th year, I suffered from a double tertian fever, and the planets at that time were as you can see. Later, when Saturn reached the Ascendant, I suffered from a urinary issue, needing to urinate up to 100 ounces daily. However, I recovered from this, but it was the beginning of the 36th year, and I was never fully restored. In the 54th year, when the Ascendant reached the ninth part of Cancer, which corresponds to the place of Saturn, I fell ill with a daily fever for 40 days, with a significant risk to my life. I had predicted this in the 56th year, so it came to pass. Therefore, in the 72nd year, when Saturn reached the square of Venus and Mercury, one must observe directions, as Caesarius did.”

“To leave nothing unconsidered, I will present the topic of a solar eclipse that occurred in the portion of my Ascendant when I was 38 years old. Astrologers were apprehensive about it for me. Nevertheless, I suffered no harm from it, nor in the following years. However, when all angles fall, these events are reported late, and they are less significant than they appear, which is contrary to others. The fruits of these studies are also meager, have given, and will continue to give, considering the magnitude of the labor involved. I will add one more thing: it was given to me by the stars to be grateful to those who have done me good. In fact, I am such a lover of truth that I do not recall telling a lie since I was fourteen years old. Furthermore, the retrograde motion of Saturn perpetually inclines one towards contemplation, gentleness, deceit, and dissimulation. However, philosophy corrected these flaws, and my studies expanded my thinking. It also made me persistent and compassionate, as the force of Mars and the Sun is entirely absent. I am especially dejected because there is no authority for the Sun and Jupiter in this configuration. This constitution also engenders desire and makes one proficient in all hidden arts, whether I have learned them or neglected them as false, such as alchemy, necromancy, and witchcraft. All the planets are enthusiastic, but I was timid and suspicious, especially in matters of little consequence and of lowly pursuit, as a mimic performer. These planets signify nothing grand, especially when so configured. Furthermore, the western significators make one timid, suspicious, and delighted in lowly and vile pursuits. Diligence and carefulness mark their character, which is why they are considered superior to all others, as these qualities are parts of a more relaxed disposition. Venus, when potent, fosters delight in gems, precious stones, sculptures, paintings, and music, as I mentioned earlier. Joined with Mercury, it bestows great affection for children, as we have explained in the second book. However, Mars in square to the Moon creates recklessness, irritability, impulsiveness, and unexpected actions in some matters, leading to inauspicious outcomes, including the loss of reputation and property. People recognizing these faults sometimes attempted to deceive or take advantage of me, and at times, they seemed to deceive me when the opportunity presented itself. This configuration also makes one inclined toward gambling. However, when Mercury is positioned in the Milky Way and joined with a small star, due to its inherent nature and that of Venus, in a human sign and retrograde, it results in excellent and profound intellectual capacity, albeit slow and occasionally turbulent. It also fosters pleasant conversation. Moreover, the rays of the trine aspect of Saturn, when placed with those three stars, and given their retrograde motion, result in a limited memory, quite deceptive, not very prompt, but long-lasting and stable, with almost no discernible difference in words or things. These qualities, transcending others, were diminished and nearly obliterated by labor and philosophy. In general, since all the planets command our character through their mutual configurations, the longer you consider it, the less I recognize myself as I am.”

On Character Flaws and Mental Illness:

There were no character flaws except for an excessive desire for knowledge, which stems from the rulers of the qualities of the soul. It was inherent in my nature to always disregard wealth and honors in favor of knowledge. Pursuit of truth often led me to forget personal advantages. Continuous contemplation also drove me toward the pleasures of Venus, and what I couldn't achieve in action, I made up for in thought, often indulging in imagination. Music, too, held a disproportionate sway over me. In one word, I was immoderate in all things I loved and averse to justice, especially in matters of cruelty, despite Saturn's influence. The cause of this lust for knowledge lies in Venus, intertwined with Saturn and Mercury, and Mars affecting both luminaries.

On Wealth

I examined my fortune, which was hampered in the sixth house, under the rays of the Sun. Therefore, I inherited the second house, ruled solely by Mercury. This indicated that all sources of gain depended on knowledge and industry. However, because Mercury was concealed and retrograde, it also indicated poverty. But since it received the influence of weak Venus, which was in its house and boundaries, it implied great profits. Saturn, in a trine aspect to Mercury as the house's ruler, enhanced these gains. However, as Mercury was inauspicious, despite the immense profits and opportunities, I remained poor. If we consider the lords of the lot, the outcome remains the same, but then Saturn would be the principal, which is less fitting. The cause of the profitable year was that Jupiter, Venus, and Mercury reached their proper sextile aspect. Jupiter was in its domicile, as seen when I detail the travels below. When Mercury and Venus reached their third part, and where their rays made a trine with Jupiter, I received the office of professor in Bologna twice in the same year, and that's why that year was significant. It was the year 62, and the positions can be seen in the Ascendant from the process.

Note that Jupiter was in opposition to its own place and in its sextile at the time of my birth. In the seventh year, Venus and Mercury reached their square aspect to the Sun and sextile to the Moon, causing a change in a place that was under Jupiter. At the end of the year 64, on August 23, I received a gift from the Illustrious Cardinal Morone for my restored health. At the beginning of the year, Venus and Mercury returned to their places. They progressed by direction towards the fortunate rays, and on that day, Venus was conjunct Jupiter in the 18th part of Virgo, close to the lots of gifts, the Sun, and Mercury. Everything matched perfectly with the art of astrology. Generally, Mars, placed in the second house in the birth chart, destroys everything through gambling in youth and bad servants in old age. Know that when the principal ruler conveys a benefit to someone, no promise is valid, no matter how well-intentioned, unless both rulers of the matter are in agreement. Therefore, positive outcomes are rarer, as in my birth chart, where both Venus and Mercury are necessary for wealth.

On Honor, Dignities, and the Favor of Princes

Up to this point, we have discussed not only the true but also the consistent outcomes. However, the following matters, though true, may appear unrelated to the decrees of the stars, causing some to deny that the birth chart I presented is truly mine. Among those skeptics is Hieronymus Cutica, a man not lacking in knowledge of astrology. It is well-known that my birth chart placed my Ascendant at the sixth degree, which is not so humble. Let's see if anything beyond the sixth state, which the birth chart indicates, was indeed achieved. Certainly not. As I mentioned earlier, neither among colleagues nor in any other circumstance did I reach any higher position, which is somewhat surprising unless one considers the birth chart I obtained. Solitary was the trine of Mars, the ruler of the midheaven, with the Sun promising some significant position connected to the arts, which I undoubtedly achieved. So, in the year 24, when the midheaven reached the trine of the Sun, I was chosen as the Rector of the Paduan Gymnasium. At that time, the midheaven had reached the 19th degree of Sagittarius, and I even presided over the tribunal in addition to the academic role.

The following year, when the midheaven reached the trine of Mars, I was awarded a doctorate in Medicine in Padua, despite opposition from my colleagues. All the primary positions had reached the root, and the unfortunate Moon was in the midheaven, in a square aspect to Mercury and Venus, which were almost at the radix by ingress. It's worth noting that around the same time, the Lot of Fortune, in the year 43, reached its proper sextile, and at that time, the Moon was also almost at its proper sextile, and the midheaven was close to Jupiter's sextile, signifying dignity through art with profit abroad. The dignity was due to the Sun through art, the midheaven through profit, and the Lot through foreign lands. Thus, in the year 43, after returning from Siena and Florence, I began publicly teaching medicine for a decent salary, and it was so unexpected that sometimes I wondered if I were asleep. I did not seek everything other than medicine, believing that being known for just that was enough. I was trusted without having taught dialectics or philosophy, unlike many of my rivals.

However, as in every aphetic year, contrary things occurred, yet my election was not challenged, only the outcomes were different. This illustrates the importance of considering the 42nd year as well. In the year 42, the Sun's position reached the place of the Moon, and the Moon, through ingress, reached the opposite of the Sun and the sextile of Mars. The midheaven reached Saturn's place, and Venus and Mercury trined Jupiter, which was the best thing that could happen in this case. The year 43 didn't favor me as much because everything was out of place. Still, the stars prevailed since, as you can see, they applied rather than withdrew from the aphetic places. Therefore, I persevered until the perfect year, which was the 50th year of my life. I did not depart immediately from my homeland but in the following year, which was the 44th. However, my friendship with no prince but the priest, as I had predicted ten years before in the book titled "Supplement to the Ephemerides," will be long-lasting, and the text, written around ten years ago, contains these words. Nevertheless, I will not be able to gain favor with any prince unless they hold an ecclesiastical dignity. In the prediction for the year 1548, to which I previously referred, I adhered to the same sentiment. However, because the Sun is unfortunate, I will be like a figure of contempt among the princes, though they will become aware of me, not as a courtier but among others. Furthermore, when I am connected to dignitaries, it will be to those in the foremost positions. Although I could have almost achieved this to date, the right time has not yet come. The cause of this delay is clearly the Sun's misfortune and Jupiter's influence, as Jupiter signifies the priesthood. This can also be observed in the present second nativity. I will discuss this at length when addressing friends.

The flying vulture in the midheaven, Procyon in the nadir, and the brighter Lanx in the west, along with the conjunction of clear running water with Jupiter in the Ascendant, will contribute to the fame of my name. However, as these are products of art and industry, they follow the exact configuration of the wandering stars rather than the genius. The genius will never forsake the fame of my name, but let others decide on this. In general, old age will be illustrious but fraught with trouble because the brilliant star sets in the west due to its erratic movement.

I wanted to see what the Moon signified for me in Saturn's place, and I found that in the 37th revolution, the planets were as you see them. In that year, I suffered from heart tremors for nine days, up to the point of fearing death, even though they had ceased for several years. I took a gem-based medicine and vomited a poison that had formed in my body; it was bile with a greenish hue. It didn't harm me further because there was no adverse direction, except that the Ascendant was under Saturn. However, this led to a urinary flux. The progress had returned to the radix, and the Moon, more importantly than Venus, looked at it through a sextile. In that year, since Venus was the ruler of the Sun's place, it was square to Jupiter, which mutually received it.

“And Venus, close to the heart of Leo in a sextile aspect, especially considering that the father was of the Law of the Moon, and she herself, as I mentioned, the ruler of the Sun's place, was consulted. Nevertheless, because the conditions from Ptolemy were not met, I arranged a meeting with the Pope more than once, specifically in May 1538. You may wonder because the Sun was in the tenth place and it happened ten times, that I discontinued my studies, and at that hour, in the degree and minute of Jupiter at the beginning of Taurus, I stopped reading, traveling, litigating, playing, writing, and even out of envy, Mars was in the same place as Venus, that is, among the calumniating doctors. They accused me of insanity, ignorance, instability, wickedness, and a scandalous life in multiple ways, so much so that I seemed to have every vice, particularly when the Planets were at the beginning of their return. Thus, the multitude of accusations rather lightens the burden, demonstrating the feebleness of the ingresses, for I would hardly have been so wicked if I had not hated them as villains.

To return to the matter, now I have taken on various responsibilities, having gone beyond the first condition, thanks to the favorable configurations of directions, progressions, and ingresses, which is not usually the case. It is evident from all this that honors can easily change due to idleness or incompetence, as much as wealth, health, friends, and other things, since the Sun will exercise its art every year, and in the future, old age itself will interrupt it.

In the 19th year, when the midheaven had reached the trine of the Sun, it seemed that I would achieve something great from the configuration of the stars. So it is. Furthermore, you see that unless many directions, progressions, and ingresses coincide, or unless the birth chart is powerful, nothing significant usually follows. Indeed, out of all things related to honors, nothing great occurred except for public office. You will also see something else in the chapter on profession and a third in the chapter on travels. In all of these, there is a remarkable harmony of directions, progressions, and ingresses, while in none others, so no one can doubt that the Planets were responsible for these achievements. In any case, it is clear that Ptolemy's words, “due to the weakness of human nature,” signify something different than it seemed, namely that the nativity, without any malefic impediment, can sometimes weaken even a strong progress, as happened at the opposite places which indicated a change in fortune.

In that year, I left my homeland and began to experience freedom. Every other year, I started to enter into the order of life. In the 19th year, when I entered the gymnasium, it was a good change. Nonetheless, all those events were laborious, and I struggled even with home life. In the 31st year, I married, and I was particularly enslaved to study. In the 43rd year, as I mentioned, I started to teach. In the 58th year, I will retire. After the 34th year, when the midheaven was continually exercising the art. But indeed, Mars is the lord of the workshop because, although it's not dwelling in the midheaven, nor in the first station of the East, it is still the lord. It's located in the midheaven, not in the first part of the East, but it's still the lord, and it is both the lord of the Midheaven and the superior and inferior stations that precede the Sun. But the place is in Libra, and Jupiter is in Capricorn, and it is ahead of the Sun. And the place is in the sign of Taurus, and I will explain that the lot of honors is not always lasting, yet it cannot be permanent.

“Now, listen to something truly astonishing. In the 37th year, the midheaven reached a sextile of Venus and Mercury in the 24th degree of Aquarius. However, it couldn't bring about any significant change because the progressions did not support it. Instead, it merely prepared the way for my entry into the college, from which I had been excluded for more than eight years due to various judgments and decrees that had passed. The Senate kept referring the case back to them. What's more, through an agreement I had made with the college, I had relinquished my rights and resigned. Therefore, in this year, the person who had treated me poorly passed away, and I gained favor with the prince of Istria. I formed friendships with Sfondrato, whose birth chart you've seen before, and Lucas Cruceius, a just man, and even more justly his brother, Francesco Cruceius, took the place of the deceased enemy. However, as I mentioned, in that year, due to the progressions, nothing could be accomplished.

In the following year, which was the 38th, the midheaven reached the 19th degree of Aquarius, where it also arrived through progression. Venus and Mercury formed a trine, but the rays of Saturn, which were present before, obstructed it. These aspects indicated the agreement I had made. The square rays of Mars also hindered it. Moreover, the Planets were in their initial positions, as you can see. The Moon and Jupiter occupied the midheaven, and Mercury and Jupiter were in a trine aspect to each other. Saturn was entirely absent. You can see, therefore, the true harmony of events with Ptolemy's statements. However, because the matter was challenging and difficult, it was postponed until the last month of the year, when the monthly progression reached the sign of Aquarius again. This was in line with the annual placement of the Moon and the sextile of Jupiter.

Yet, this is not enough. On the day the progression reached the 19th degree of Aquarius, which was August 28, 1539, the Moon was in the position of the radix, and it also matched the position of the progression. All three progressions, annual, monthly, and daily, start from the 19th degree of Aquarius and extend to the 19th degree of Pisces. That day, there was also a lunar opposition. It's remarkable that all the significant events in my life, such as my election as rector on August 2, 1525, my marriage, my doctorate, my entry into the college, and many others, always occurred when the Moon was in the same position. This has a certain hidden and mysterious significance for me. Nor should you believe that I thought about these things; in fact, I had no knowledge of it. Even that treacherous enemy, when he knew something about astrology during our first time together in the college, which happened in 1535, said, “I have chosen the time of this partnership to favor you, so that this pact can never be broken.” He used to say this in his suffering.

However, divine judgments are hidden, for what he pretended to do for the partnership was actually contrary to it, as that pact deprived me of what was rightfully mine in the college. He chose a location that was auspicious for me, not knowing that the last part of Aquarius was most favorable for me. So, I often say that elections, for two, almost more harmful than they are beneficial. With this birth chart, when all those with whom I lived admired my faith and integrity, I instilled shame in my rivals.

As for insanity, if I am insane, or ever was, you who accuse me, show your wisdom. I was born with a weak body, in poverty, during times when wars were ongoing. I had no help from family connections. I overcame opposition from the college, survived numerous intrigues and attacks, and I refused any academic position, even though I could have had them. I elevated myself, lived blamelessly, and excelled in every contest, as judged by all. So much so, that many openly admitted when competing against me that they were completely forgotten by everyone. I have never flattered any prince, but rather opposed them vehemently. I have been mentioned in many books, remained in good health, and enjoyed a reasonably long life. If it pleases the fates, I will reach the age of 56. I have been extremely fortunate in making numerous and significant discoveries in my field. Practice in my profession and my successes have brought me more glory than envy and hatred.

In general, Saturn, along with noble stars, is the cause of the greatness of my name in my field. Because Saturn, while giving form, also gives what follows from it. It bestows excellence in the art and also the form that emerges from it. The decrees of honors, wealth, authority in my profession, the happy birth of my children, as I will show below, have all aided in my enduring fame.”

On Marriage
The Moon was in the west in relation to the Sun and in the east in relation to the angles, thus signifying marriage in middle age. There is no need for progression in this case according to Ptolemy's view, but rather when the principal positions reach their opposite in middle age. This occurred at the age of 31. In that year, the Moon came close to the position opposite Venus. Venus was in the position of the Moon's progression, and Venus ruled the ascendant. In the same year, Mars opposed Jupiter and was at the end of Aries, while Saturn was near the position opposite, at the end of Gemini, in sextile with Mars and trine with Jupiter. Mars, however, was retrograde and ruled the ascendant's progression. The Saturn return, which often hinders marriage, had taken place.

Note that those who marry before the age of 30 usually have a significant signification of marriage, and most of them often marry more than once. I speak of men; as for women, they usually marry before the age of 15, which marks the midpoint. They often marry more than once too. Thus, I entered the college exactly 15 years after my father's death. The missing day is made up by a bissextile, and two other days remain. My father's spirit hindered me in this matter.

This is what Aristotle meant when he said that the lives and destinies of all living beings are determined by the courses of the stars. But to return to the topic, in that year, Mars, the ruler of the seventh house, reached the Moon's rays in trines. Therefore, Mars signified my role in the marriage, as it ruled the seventh house, and the Moon represented my wife. There was so little time between this aspect that not even a day was missing. But this is contrary to Ptolemy's view.

Returning to his teachings, the Moon was in a mutable sign, configured to both Jupiter and Mars, so it should have signified two wives. And indeed, it would have, if the Moon had not moved toward Saturn, and Saturn had not mingled too much with Venus, who is the ruler of the ascendant. Thus, Saturn hindered the second marriage, but not the first, although it was also a close call.

In the same way, the years 7, 19, 31, 43, 55 usually signify a change in life, while the years 8, 20, 32, 44, 56, and 68 mean danger and destruction if malefic planets are in the second or eighth houses or the fifth or eleventh houses. This is because the ascendant descends to the eighth sign in those years through progression. If it has less affliction, it signifies illness, travel, and physical discomfort. In matters not related to these, benefic planets are well placed, or their rays reach a trine to the eighth house, or the annual progression of the ascendant and the Moon is entirely fortunate, and free from harm. I believe this is the reason why I saw four young men, all of them being the only sons of their fathers, dying at the age of 20. Certainly, that year is generally not free from great danger. However, in the case of the year 56, many illustrious men, such as Scipio and Virgil, died at an even greater rate.

That year, the ascendant and the Moon returned to the eighth sign, which is not configured to them. Therefore, there is a proportional connection to illnesses in those years, as if it were a ratio of eight months to the parents. However, in this case, the entire maleficence of the eighth month is spread over multiple years, namely the 8th, 20th, 32nd, and so on. Thus, the resulting force is significantly lessened. Moreover, at that age, a person is already spent, and this year marks the last of Mars' custody. Therefore, it unleashes its anger that year, just as wicked soldiers do when they are forced to leave their assigned quarters. For this reason, the belief that these years, called climacteric from the number of the climacteric years, which are seven, because they can be divided by seven, such as 7, 14, 21, is groundless. This belief is contrary to Ptolemy's reasoning and sense.

The reason demonstrating this is that the same thing cannot have more than one administration under the same form. Planets simply have divisions of ages according to Ptolemy; therefore, they cannot have any other division. The second division is called the possession of rays or the body. The third is the dominion or distribution of places. The fourth is the possession of rays or the body, either ninth or superimposed. These events happening every 12 years, as I mentioned, are also confirmed by Jupiter's return to the same sign.

Just as a person experiences the heat of summer, the cold of winter, the winds of March, and the delights of May through the annual return of the Sun, which is obvious because the Sun is visible to the world, in the same way, every 12 years, a person experiences something hidden during the return of Jupiter to the same place, a little earlier or later in the year, as the return of Jupiter is more hidden than the return of the Sun. Therefore, returning to the subject, when the Moon was configured to Mars, it signified a spirited, stubborn, and untamed wife. Since it was in the dignities of benefics, it represented a gentle and ingenious wife who was moderately beautiful.

However, because it was in Pisces and in the aspect of male planets, it represented male offspring. Therefore, she miscarried three males, delivered two perfectly, and gave birth to one female. Now, it is time for me to speak of these matters, for I cannot discuss the agreement between us since I do not have her birth chart. She lived with me for 15 years, and in such time, Mars, the ruler of the seventh house, reached the Moon's square rays, which, as I mentioned, signified the day of the marriage itself, that is, 30 years, 6 months, and 24 days. However, Ptolemy did not mention this.

On Children
Jupiter, Venus, and the Moon are common bestowers of children, but the Moon does not aspect the tenth or eleventh house; therefore, it will not grant any children. Jupiter casts its rays into the tenth house near the end, in the fourth part of Aquarius, where the rays of the Sun and Mars, in a trine aspect, are also present. Moreover, because it aspects the apex of the tenth house by its square ray from the equinoctial, since it is in signs of short ascension, it signifies the first-born son, usually male, since all planets and signs are masculine.

When my first son was born, Jupiter was in the early degrees of Aquarius, where its square rays were positioned in the tenth house in my nativity. Just as Jupiter and the ascendant were in a similar place when my father was born, being influenced by the square rays of Jupiter in the 11th degree in his birth chart. You can see how fitting this is. In the case of my son, Jupiter, in that degree, which was the Taurus node, was in the ascendant, just as in my son's chart, Jupiter was the ruler of the ascendant.

For the second child, Jupiter bestowed its sextile rays in Pisces under the Moon. Because Jupiter was in a feminine sign, and its rays fell under a feminine sign and under the Moon, the second child was female. The Moon was in the fourth degree of Pisces, where the sextile rays of Jupiter fell. However, because the daughter's house cusp was weak since it was at the end of the eleventh house, she was helped by Venus in the eleventh house, falling into Aquarius, where Jupiter was near the 29th degree in her chart.

In my son's birth chart, his significator was in the tenth house, where the square rays of the Sun and Mars indicated strength and illness, and thus, he was in great danger during infancy. However, in the daughter's case, her significator was at the end of the eleventh house, in a fruitful sign, and the Moon was present without any malefics. Therefore, it signified that she would be weak but healthy in infancy. And she indeed was weak; we did not have much hope for her future. She appeared so fragile, yet so healthy that she seemed never to perish.

The trine rays of Venus, however, fell in the 24th part of Aquarius, and the square rays fell in the 24th part of Capricorn. The former were in the Midheaven, and the latter in the eleventh house. Those that fell in the eleventh house were weak, and since Venus was also weak, they helped the daughter. Those that fell in the Midheaven, with Venus rising outside the Sun's rays, signified a son. Although Venus was feminine and the sign it directed its rays to was feminine, because Venus was in a masculine sign and closely connected with Mercury and Saturn, it strongly indicated a male. However, since Venus was very weak in the sixth house, it needed Jupiter's help, especially because Jupiter's rays in Pisces indicated two children due to the sign's dual nature. Therefore, a son was born, male despite the feminine signs. However, he was born weak and prone to illness because Venus was weak in the sixth house, and Jupiter's sextile rays were also weak in that place. Nevertheless, he survived because the 24th part of Capricorn is immune to the rays of malefics, though Mars rules there.

From this, it is clear that all my children are granted by Jupiter. The first child came from a square aspect, which is found in its nativity. The second came from sextile rays in the fourth part of Pisces, with the Moon present in her nativity. Because the fourth part of Taurus, where my third child is, is obedient and submissive to Jupiter, the third child came from sextile rays again because Pisces is a dual sign, in the second and third houses, with weak sextile rays, and also because they fell in a weak place. Thus, Venus helped with Mercury and the Moon, but the Moon had a stronger influence on the female, while Venus had a greater impact on the male.

Therefore, the first child was oppressed by many illnesses from infancy and was often left for dead because the luminaries were without any support. Mercury succeeded the Moon in causing harm. Only Venus protected the ascendant, but he remained deaf in the right ear. He was rather small than large, with a somewhat bent body, white eyes, small, yet always active. He had a fair complexion, reddish hair, and the second toe of the little foot joined with the middle one. When the Sun reached Mercury, he took up the laurel in medicine. He was a good musician when the Midheaven reached the square aspect of Jupiter, with Jupiter aspecting the Sun, bringing good fortune in the 24th year, and he was elected to the college. In the same cooptation, he married without my knowledge, a woman with little chastity and no dowry. Expelled from my father's house, I supported him as much as I could. However, he had nothing and was deeply addicted to gambling because of the overpowering influence of Jupiter opposing Mars and Mercury's excessive power, which was in the bounds of Mars. The lot itself was bad, for both Saturn and Mars dominated the second house by opposition, and since they were in the last degrees of the eleventh house, no protection could be expected from it. Mars, elevated above Jupiter while in opposition to him, pushed him into extreme misery. He was never going to be rich, as it is evident. Nevertheless, he earned through his skills, and he dressed splendidly considering his condition.

“He took a daughter and a little son from his wife; the boy barely survived, and we have recorded his nativity. The girl died in her infancy. However, it did not promise the same fate for me, for when the Sun, placed with Saturn in the ascendant, was in trine to Jupiter while Aldebaran was in the mix, it had a figure like this one portrayed here. Thus, as the Sun in trine with Jupiter and Venus signifies a long life, and I have now surpassed 33 years since his birth, I should have a happy life, although I might fall ill after 20 years; otherwise, I will not escape Saturn's influence on my body. The lot, favorably placed with the Dragon's Head at the end of the first house, particularly with the second house ruled by Venus in sextile to the Sun, as I mentioned, indicates a well-established life, considering my condition. There was nothing to be condemned, except for Mars being very close to the ascendant. However, the rest of the planets were too strong. Toward the end of the 26th year, the Moon, one of the Lots of Fortune, was weak, being placed in a circuitous motion that passes through the intersection and the body of the Moon, as if the heavens were moving backward, as it often happens in converse direction. It reached the sextile rays of Mars so that it had hardly left, not even shielded from the Sun's rays, or beneath them. In the same year, Mercury, another Lot of Fortune, approached Saturn.

Thus, with the help of another servant who had been wounded, he ordered poison to be given to his wife after childbirth. Although he regretted it beforehand, and she did not die from it, she died a short while later on the night of April 9, 1560, without my knowledge, and he was punished. Behold how one nativity can be disastrous for the native and excellent for others, such as parents, siblings, or children. Indeed, even if she had lived, her life would have been filled with difficulties, even though, at first glance, it seemed good. I also considered the return of that year, which was very violent. Others can escape when they do wrong, but he perished when he wished to do so. In this return, the Moon was once again in the seventh house, an alien and in opposition to Jupiter. When Jupiter is in his own house, he becomes an enemy to the Moon. Mercury was also with Venus in a square aspect to the Moon and Jupiter, while Mars was in opposition or square to all of them. He was elevated above them in the tenth house angle, and he could not escape a violent death. Hence, it is clear that returns are more evident than progressions. In the progression, the Ascendant would have been in the 15th part of Capricorn, and all the planets, especially Mars, Venus, and Mercury, would have been outside the angle, and the Moon, being very swift, indicated hasty decisions. Good for those executing them, but bad for the principals, for they act without consulting anyone. Public death was decreed by the return because the Moon was the ruler of time above the Earth, and Mars was in the Midheaven. Jupiter indicated angry judges when he was not conjoined to the Ascendant in the horoscope. According to the direction, the Moon was close to the Sun, which was with the Taurus eye.

Therefore, the illustrious royal Senate raged, and some proposed that he should be buried alive, even though he deserved nothing of the sort. His wife openly confessed to him, especially in front of her mother, that she was unchaste, and the girl born to her was conceived from an adulterer. Therefore, the enraged young man, although not he himself but his servant, attempted this. He was captured on February 17, when the Moon had reached the opposition to Saturn, and she was unfortunate in Scorpio. However, this is not enough, although the place of Saturn was the place of death, for the Moon had returned to the same place once that year. What happened is that the beginning of the month of progression was on the 22nd day, at 8 o'clock, at the end of January, when the Moon was in the 17th part of Sagittarius, in the place of Mars. Therefore, the proceedings were held before he was captured in the morning. As for his death, there is some doubt. The Moon reached the sign of Sagittarius in March, on the 18th day, at 12 o'clock. Saturn, at the beginning of the month, reached the place of the Sun, and at the time of death, Mars also reached it. I also directed the Ascendant to the 29th part of Taurus and reached it in 278 days, the day on which he was captured. In 53 days, it reached the place of the killer Saturn. Thus, the location of the direction not only indicates death but also the times and manner of death, as well as the causes and issues of the return. Only the constitution of the return can indicate disputes, contentions, fights, dangers, and perhaps wounds, and even death if one of the Lots is afflicted or approaches the direction. Public death could not be determined solely by the direction.

“Meanwhile, he had already taken charge of a little son, and since Venus signified the mother and was closely in square to Mars, it indicated death. Mars was elevated above Venus and the Moon, forming a trine with short ascensions. The Moon was afflicted by the opposing rays of Saturn and was in the heart of Scorpio, associated with the nature of Mars.

In regard to the father, it signified a short life because the Sun was in the western angle in its fall. Therefore, I extracted his father's nativity from his son's and placed the Sun in the horoscope, making the Moon the Lot of Fortune. Thus, it indicated impending death for the same reasons as it did for the mother. However, because the Moon was elevated above Mars and Saturn and was already separating from Saturn, it was almost as if it could be saved unless it had been in opposition to the place of the father, the Sun, and thus in an unfortunate place.

It was also with that star, which is not very helpful in any case. It is evident that it is a miserable figure for the father: the deserted and unlucky Sun, Saturn in the third place, a solitary foreigner as both the significator of the father and the ruler of the Sun's place and the ascendant. The Moon, with the foreign lot, was struck by hostile rays of malefics, remote from the angles, and absent from beneficial aspects.

I also extracted my own nativity from my nephew's, and I had to place Saturn, signifying grandparents (let me say this for the sake of brevity), in the ascendant. The Moon was close to opposing the ascendant, and so in the third year, I changed my homeland with honor and profit. The Sun was the significator of life, though weak and distant from the malefics. It is clear that Mercury is not completely fortunate, except for the square aspect to Saturn.

Since the Lot, Jupiter, and the Dragon's Head are together in Pisces, I will have a fairly happy life with joy and profit through friends, as has been true so far. Therefore, life will be feeble even beyond the age but removed from all violence and snares. The worse part is that the Moon is in the seventh place and elevated in a trine with Mars over it. If this were in the principal nativity, it would signify danger specifically for the daughter, the son, or both since it is a bicorporeal sign. However, it cannot apply to both because it is a trine and changes its nature based on position.

The square between Saturn and Mercury is not as serious for me as it is for Mercury, especially when he approaches Saturn. The third is the square between Venus and Mars. Because the Moon is the ruler of the ascendant in voluntary exile, it has already completed its cycles. Since all the planets were above the Earth in my nativity, when they are below, they indicate a life contrary to the previous one, though weaker than when the son was alive.

At that time, Jupiter, Mars, Lot of Fortune, and the Dragon's Head were in the angles. You also see the similarity of the nativity with that of John the Baptist, where I am the elder and the son is the younger. There's a sextile between Mars and the Sun in my nativity, similar to the one between John the Baptist's Mars and my Sun. Additionally, the ascendant in his nativity squares mine, and his Venus squares my Mars, taking the place of the Moon in my nativity.

Now, let's discuss his life, which was feeble. The Moon is below the Earth as a foreign planet with opposing rays, unfortunate outside the angles, with a star associated with Mars. The Lot of Fortune is unchaste due to Saturn, concerning life; otherwise, there are no other evils. It signifies his future wealth from his grandfather. He is also impeded both inherently and in terms of life due to hostile rays. His ascendant, Mercury, is quite robust due to the rays of the Sun and Mars.

The Sun is the significator of life, but it has many enemies. Mercury is first activated at 22 years, but this is minor. After Saturn's square at 25 years, he may redeem some money. Then, due to the ascendant opposing Mercury at 27 years and Saturn's square at 30 years, it seems that from about 22 to 30 years, he will endure the greatest dangers of violent death, as well as hidden and lingering illnesses. There will also be discomfort in his left eye.

Regarding behavior, he will be very persistent due to Saturn being the ruler of Mercury's place and talkative due to Mars, with the Moon's aspect and the star I mentioned called Scorpio's heart. He will have wealth and also something related to religion. In this aspect, he is far luckier than his father and my son. He will be greatly impeded and laborious at thirty years. However, once I am gone, if he survives to that age, his fortune will be much milder.

He should always be cautious around water because the Moon is in a very unfavorable position. For women, he will suffer significant losses and much greater dangers, especially when the Moon is in Leo or Aquarius near their borders. He should control his anger and loquacity. He will have wives and concubines, and he will excel in matters of Venus. He will father many daughters and, with greater difficulty, sons.

Venus signifies an art, perhaps medicine due to its association with Mars. If he engages in it, he will be quite successful and famous in the field. He will be well-regarded by rulers and seen as a worthy companion. In 1567, on October 12th, a Sunday around four o'clock in the afternoon, he received a wound on his head from the fall of a ruler, nearly to his mouth. He was in great danger of his life.

The planets at the time of the event and the revolution's time placed the Moon in Mercury's place in the nativity, indicating that this place would not be very favorable to him. The event occurred when the Sun reached a sextile with Mars in the West, and Mercury was returning to its proper place for the year. It was a significant perilous moment, with nothing favorable present except for God's mercy.

The true ascendant is the fifth part of Leo, as is evident from this direction. In this nativity, malefics are elevated above benefics, so good beginnings often end poorly. Elevated Saturn will provide a difficult discovery. The Moon, with the shining heart of Scorpio, signifies dignities, and if it reaches adulthood, many illustrious children, especially sons. Mars in a square to Venus indicates unhappy love affairs.

Returns to opposing places are bad in the 20th and 33rd years, and so on, in which there will be happiness due to the influence of the benefics and because of the priesthood or priests due to Jupiter with the Dragon's Head. Nevertheless, he will have a bad disposition due to the dominion of all malefics in that place. But as I said, in such a man, he is the master of himself and has power over others in many aspects.”

The younger son's nativity has Jupiter in a position almost corresponding to Venus and Mercury in mine, as well as the sextile rays of Jupiter. Additionally, he has Mars in a position corresponding to Saturn in mine, and the Sun in a position corresponding to Mars in mine. Hence, these factors indicate mutual affection. Jupiter, unable to reach the 24th part of Capricorn due to the number of years, reaches the position of Venus instead. His Lot of Fortune is under the Sun's rays and before it. The Sun, on the other hand, is in a trine to the Sun. The Lot of Fortune is strong, and the ascendant is in trine to the ascendant.

When Nicholas Constantius of Bologna, a renowned astrologer, saw this nativity, he immediately said that the child should be guarded, for if he survived, he would surpass all of his kindred. Yet, he was in danger of not speaking due to Saturn's opposition with Mercury. However, Mercury quickly moved away, so he remained mute until the fifth year but then spoke fluently.

The Sun is the lord of life, and it is astonishing that it did not harm him when in conjunction with Mars. That happened to me due to violent anger. Nevertheless, a little before that, I fell ill and was close to death due to the Sun's approach to Mars. In his infancy, he was frequently convulsed and tormented in many ways due to the Moon's square rays that come after the Sun. Mars did not kill him because it was under the rays and due to the trine of Jupiter.

The Moon, in the seventh place, indicates foreign dangers from waters, which he faced twice, nearly without hope. There were also dangers of a violent death by iron, which should still be avoided. These events will make him restless and wandering. From the age of 14, he never stayed in one place but perpetually traveled through Italy.

When the Moon meets Saturn, the Sun, and Mars, he will be estranged from marital affection. He will face dangers from slander and poison, but I believe he will survive. He will be of hasty and inconstant disposition but eventually change for the better. Although he may appear furious now, he will become elegant and astute. Benefics govern the places of Mercury and the Moon, and he will have many daughters, mainly due to the Moon and Venus.

Jupiter's rays fall in the place under the Sun. The Lot is not worthy of being chosen as the ruler of fortunes since it is hidden. Therefore, the second house, where Jupiter is, should be preferred, especially because Jupiter is present there. Consequently, he will inherit wealth and receive gifts from his wife or friends. He will dissipate them with games and vain experiments and perhaps even by building, though it may seem absurd. He will suffer from brain diseases, and even when he was an infant, he suffered from a fever for six months.

Furthermore, to return to the primary topic, the return of the year in which the first son was born. In the progress, Venus was in the 24th part, and Jupiter by ingress in the 25th part of Scorpio. In the year in which he was born, that is, my 33rd year of life, Venus was in the 24th part of Gemini by progress, and Jupiter by ingress was in the 22nd part of Sagittarius. The ascendant in the nativity is between its position and the nativity, and the Moon in the return of the nativity is in the place of Venus and at the root. In the nativity of the son, the Moon and Mercury, the ruler of the Sun's place, are in the place of the progress of Venus's return, and opposite to Jupiter in the return by ingress.

In the third year of the generation of the third son, Venus approached by progress to the 24th part of Aquarius, in the middle of the sky, and by ingress to its proper place at the root, and in the return of the nativity. Venus was in a trine to Jupiter, radiant and near the place of its progress in the generation. The ascendant was between the place of Jupiter in the generation and Venus in the return of the nativity. Jupiter was in the opposite place to the Moon's hour of the year's restoration.

Regarding the directions for the first two sons, the Moon reached Jupiter's body and the middle of the sky, forming a trine with Venus and Mercury. In the nativity of the younger son, the Moon reached its own sextile, and the middle of the sky formed a sextile with Jupiter. It is evident that there is no hope for other sons after these directions. The lord of the ascendant for all sons is the same, longer in mine, Jupiter for the first two, and Mercury for the last two.

Let us now examine the nativity of the youngest son, where the Moon is the mistress of life, along with the Part of Fortune. It signifies a change of place with honor and profit due to the square aspects of Venus and an increase in the art due to Eastern Mercury. Saturn signifies an illness, a chronic one that I suffer from in the same way it signifies it. However, it is not very troublesome.

When the ascendant reaches his trine rays, I will hardly survive because they are in an unfavorable place, and the time coincides with others. It signifies good friends, many of them, a cheerful life, and wealth acquired in various ways according to the natal chart. Jupiter and Venus are the significators of fortune and are favorable, though uncertain due to their square aspect to each other and the increase in the art due to Eastern Mercury.

Regarding the health aspect, after twenty years, there will be an illness in the year 1555, a fever lasting forty days. After sixteen years, the position of Saturn opposes Jupiter, and matters return to the same state as before with others. Since Jupiter, the Lot of Fortune, and the Moon are close, they indicate increases in good fortune. Venus is in the Second House, and because the Lot of Fortune is not powerful, it predicts much profit in the future, as the Second House is safe, and Venus is the ruler of the place, the Lot, and the Moon.

As for the other aspects, neither good nor bad, but the opposition between Saturn and Jupiter signifies prolonged disputes, which happened with the college. However, I was admitted due to my qualifications. The duty of teaching was assigned to me by the younger son in the year 1543 on May 25th, the year of his birth. Therefore, I began to teach medicine in the same year, on November 1st.

Thus, you can see how the birth charts of children can change the parents' circumstances. There were nine different states up to the present day. The first one started in the year 1524, based on the father's birth chart initially, then the mother's, and finally mine.

The second state began in the year 1524, around the beginning of September, until May 14, 1534, based on mine and my mother's charts. However, in the end, it was interfered with by the birth chart of the wife, which began in the summer of 1532.

The third state was from 1534 to 1535, starting at the beginning of November, a mixture of my birth chart, the birth chart of the eldest son, and the wife's birth chart. The fourth state began at the beginning of November 1535 and lasted until July 26, 1537, mixed from my birth chart, the eldest son's birth chart, the daughter's birth chart, and the wife's birth chart.

The fifth state was from July 26, 1537, to May 25, 1543, mixed from my birth chart, the eldest son's birth chart, the daughter's birth chart, and the wife's birth chart. The sixth state was from May 25, 1543, to July 22, 1547, mixed from my birth chart, the birth charts of the three sons, and the wife's birth chart.

The seventh state was from July 22, 1547, to January 21, 1560, mixed from my birth chart and the birth charts of the three sons. During this time, Brandoria, the daughter-in-law, married the son at the age of two years and three months, and Diaregina, a girl, was also born and survived for fifteen months.

The eighth state began on January 21, 1560, and lasted until April 9 of the same year, mixed from my birth chart, the birth charts of the three sons, and the grandson's birth chart. The ninth, which I am currently in, is mixed from my birth chart, the birth chart of the youngest son, the daughter's birth chart, and the grandson's birth chart.

I did not divide the seventh state because those marriages and the birth of the girl did not affect my situation. Even if they did, I did not put the daughter ahead of the youngest son because she has been married for a long time and has left home.

So, my current state is almost entirely composed of my own birth chart, that of the youngest son, and the grandson's birth chart. The first state was full of hardships; the second was laborious and involved living abroad in extreme poverty. In the third, I returned to my homeland and achieved honors, leading a quiet life. In the fourth, I lived with more sadness, danger, and poverty. In the fifth, I was anxious and faced many conflicts. In the sixth, I was extremely happy and wealthier. In the seventh, I was more embittered, but I lived a quiet life, except toward the end. In the eighth, there were disputes in marriage, sadness, and expenses. In the ninth, I became freer, gained more honor and profit, but there were still some conflicts, which gradually subsided since the beginning of the eighth state.

I also extracted the birth charts of the other sons from my own, as Ptolemy recommends. This was common to both charts, but it has different significations because the rulers are different. For example, Mercury is weaker than Venus, so the daughter will be much luckier than the son. I say this because the same planet signifies multiple children depending on the areas it aspects.

About Travels

Regarding necessary journeys, I will give an account of only two that I made. The first of these was in the year 51 when I went to Scotland. The directions of five principal places coincided with the transits in my birth chart in the year 1551. Here are the main locations: in this, you can observe this remarkable fact that the directions of five principal places coincided with the transits in my birth chart.

So, I stayed out of my homeland for 335 days and visited both Germanys, Rhetia, France, and England. I was called by Prince Amulthon to take up a position, as I mentioned before. During my departure, the transits, progressions, and ingresses were consistent with the promises of my natal chart. The Sun had passed beyond the place of the Moon, and the Moon was again near the place of the progression. Another remarkable coincidence was that in the same year, the Midheaven of Archbishop Amulthon reached the eighth part of Pisces, the place of the Moon in my birth chart, and was opposite to his Moon.

I have already discussed this when talking about friends. You should know that the position of Mercury may be different because the birth chart was not calculated according to Copernicus's tables but those of others. It may have been in the 21st part of Libra, as it cannot be far from Venus.

The second journey was when I left my homeland for good. At that time, Jupiter reached the 12th part of Cancer, where there was a trine to the Moon and close to the square of the Sun. Venus, the ruler of the natal chart, was in trine to Taurus in the 4th part of Capricorn. The Ascendant in progression reached the 7th part of Gemini, where the rays of the Moon were in a square, and Mars was a wanderer. The Sun was in opposition to its altitude, and Jupiter was a wanderer in the Ascendant, reaching the 4th part of Cancer.

Thus, Jupiter became the lord of the matter because when a planet is a wanderer in the Ascendant, it prompts the native to leave their homeland. If it's a benefic and reaches a place where it has power, this change is fortunate; otherwise, it is detrimental.

From this, it is evident that each birth chart has specific places where multiple factors come together to produce a particular effect. For example, for travels, from the 4th part of Cancer to the 12th part of Capricorn, these factors include the trine aspect between the Moon and its ruler, the sextile of Jupiter, and the opposition of Saturn in the 9th house. The eighth part of both signs coincides with the place where Venus and Mercury have power.

In these areas, lunar rays and Mars, as well as the trine and sextile of Jupiter, come into play. In Leo and Aquarius, these factors determine dignities based on their distance from the Sun, Mars, Venus, Mercury, and Saturn, roughly the 20th part. However, these have little effect unless the directions of these planets to these locations occur.

I believe this was the reason the Arabs followed certain parts, as they saw that after Jupiter's ingress into the beginning of Cancer, the journey followed. They established the start of Cancer as the beginning of the journey and considered how far Jupiter was from the Moon's lord. They found that Jupiter was 52 parts away from the Moon and established this as a false rule. It's as if the length of the journey is equal to the distance between Jupiter and the lord of the Moon's place from the Moon added to the Ascendant.

However, this is only true when the lords of the Moon's place and the event place are at that location at the same time, not at another. So, I call these locations coincidences or consensuses, and in most cases, they are duplicated; that is, the same location and its opposite are involved in any event.

About Death

Death will occur when 24° of Cancer meets the Ascendant, where the rays of Venus and Mercury square each other without assistance. This will happen in the year 1573, on December 5th, when the person is 72 years, 2 months, and 12 days old. Although it may not extend beyond July 23, 1571, for another reason.

At that time, the progression of the Ascendant reached the unfortunate place of the Moon. At the beginning of the year, Luna was at 24° Capricorn, where there are the malevolent rays of Venus and Mercury. This is also confirmed by the month, for on the second of July, the Ascendant reaches Capricorn, and from the sixth part, it progresses to Aries on the 21st, ending at the 23rd.

It is likely that the illness will begin on the second or third day of the month, and the disease will be long and cold due to the influence of Saturn's rays, with Venus and Mercury being involved. It will be variable due to multiple factors, and Mercury alone causes complex diseases because of its multiple changes and highly anomalous and rapid motions. I have also mentioned this in the Third Paralipomenon according to the doctrine of Fate.

Division of Time

Regarding this, it was discussed earlier when in the year 51, the Ascendant reached the rays of Jupiter, and both the Moon and Jupiter formed a sextile. At that time, the native had attained full authority and was not subject to reversals. Mars, in a trine with the rays of the Sun, which was the lord of the Midheaven and time, indicated success in the initial stages of the journey.

However, if there had been no impediments from base individuals, the year would have been fortunate due to the reasons mentioned. Nevertheless, if Mars is not in a favorable position, the same reasoning applies if the Sun is at 63 or 62 degrees, or if Jupiter is in a strong position, as it often brings great successes.

An Example of an Examination

It is better to choose the past rather than the future because we do not seek to display our abilities but rather to provide guidance for the benefit of the readers. No one can predict the future better than someone who narrates the past.

Let's consider a very clear example, the year in which a complete change in life was decided, and I resolved to live outside my homeland. I left twice that year, and therefore in the same year, I took up the task of teaching. First, I received a stipend of 521 crowns, then 700 crowns when I became a citizen of Bologna with granted immunity.

So, I erected the chart for the year 62 according to Ptolemy, and the Ascendant was in Gemini, indicating gifts to be given. Likewise, the Moon was in an elevated position, for friends are nobler when they have wealth. Also, because the Moon signifies the cause (as the opposite place signifies nothing except because of the planet), and its lord, Mercury, was in its house and its altitude in the morning rising, thus it was visible.

It was, therefore, strong and indicated good health despite old age, even with the afflictions of a long journey by water, a change of region, and, more importantly, rampant diseases throughout Italy, from which countless people perished that year.

Subsequently, when examining the lord of the 10th house, Saturn, conjoined with Mercury and retrograde, it indicated a setback in my profession, and consequently, everyone avoided me. Later, turning to directions, I found that the Ascendant reached a trine aspect to the Moon's ray and a square to the Sun, signifying a journey for the sake of honor. Jupiter, who was in the Ascendant, advanced by direction and ingress to the place of journeys in a trine to the Moon, a square to the Sun, and a sextile to its own place, signifying a definite change of homeland with honor, dignity, and profit, which could not be inferred from the natal chart alone.

Similarly, the direction of Venus and Mercury—because Venus is the ruler of the Sun's place, and the Sun, being weak and in its fall—reached a fortunate place of dignities where the same rays were, but the place was above the earth. Dignities are nobler for journeys, and matters are more conspicuous. Mercury, the ruler of the 2nd house, was there too. The place of wealth is opposite the Moon's place in these matters, where the Moon signifies friends who provide wealth. Therefore, if it is above the earth, it indicates friends who give wealth, or if it is below the earth, it signifies friends who are acquired or will be acquired.

Thus, in this case, it did not indicate profit but rather loss because the Part of Fortune reached the boundaries of misfortunes. So, I gained nothing or less than ever in that year, but I later added a lot to that Part. Magistrates who bestow fortunes are indicated when the Sun itself or the ruler of the place conjoins by rays with Jupiter. In this case, it was a stipend because Mercury was the ruler of the 2nd house and in a trine with the Part of Fortune's principal places.

Let's present the times of significant events. So, during the time when the direction of the lord of honor reached a place already devoid of honors, it signified the certain attainment of honor. The Sun was in a trine with Jupiter at the time. Concerning the month, the fortunate places were within the first thirty degrees. Therefore, the first meeting took place within the first 28 days with the Senate Mission on October 8, 1562. The first election was on September 14, 1562. The second election on October 9. The meeting on October 15, 1562. The third election was on April 3, 1563, at two different times.

"And because the lords of these places were Jupiter and the Moon, therefore the second election of the Bolognese and the dispatch from the Senate of Milan happened on the same day when the Moon was in the fifth part of Pisces in a trine with Jupiter. And it is clear that the perfection of days reached Sagittarius, at the end of which is the beginning of the fortunate place of Capricorn. But on the day of the agreement, the Moon was in opposition to Venus and in the sign of Gemini, and the daily perfection had reached the sixth part of Pisces because it was evening, and Jupiter was looking at the place with a trine.

However, in the third election, when it was made on the 191st day, it is evident that it was in the seventh month. The rising sign was the sixth part of Sagittarius, in which the fourth part of the fortunate place of Capricorn was included, whose beginning is towards March 11th and towards the same. The Moon was then in the 26th part of Leo, from the beginning of the return of the year.

This is because that place is also fortunate, even against the rays of Saturn, Venus, and Mercury. Also, the tenth parts of Leo and Aquarius, although friendly, are weaker because the Planets that look at them are all in cadent places, weak, and also because they are void of directions. Only the superior planets reach the Midheaven, but in youth. The place of the Moon was acting and suffering, but nothing could reach it.

Therefore, the remaining three places are strong for the Sun. For those in Leo, no Planet is directed to them, but only by ingress. However, it has been shown that strong places are those where the rays, directions, and ingresses of the same Planets converge, as we have also shown in the birth of our son John the Baptist.

This decree also admits it. Jupiter, the lord of times, specifically from the 56th year to the 68th, so that five aspects of many Planets converge into one place, the direction of one of them at that time, the ingress of the same into the place of the ascendant, or the principal place related to that cause, and that the Planet is the lord of that time. In some nativities, three causes are considered more than five, and sometimes two causes produce the effect, but a single reason cannot, unless in a general constitution, such as a pestilence or a shipwreck. Then he submits to death.

Therefore, astrology is not wrong in such cases but seems to be mistaken. For there is a reason for the journey. Even though he does not have a syndrome, he still has one cause, either in the nativity, or in the direction, or in the return, or in the division, or in the process of death. And if he does not have it, he will not die but will escape within a few days, or even alone. And especially if he has a contrary sign in one of the five, and a benefic in the eighth.

Therefore, from the 41st year to the 56th and from the 68th, entering a ship is dangerous because a person born is subject to malefic through the division of times. But otherwise, by one cause alone, no matter how effective, a person cannot achieve the effect, otherwise it would follow at birth, since it is very strong.

Therefore, the effect cannot be delayed, so they would exist and not exist. And this only happens in those who are born dead. From this, it also follows that those who have Planets in even degrees of signs, even if they do not aspect each other, experience great events, especially if they live for a long time because they have a specific and rarer cause already prepared. Hence, either shortly or at least after some time, they fall into it.

I also directed the Planets to the place of the fortunes in Leo to see if they could do anything. And indeed, Mars and Saturn opposed it because they are not luminaries, nor the rulers of the principal places. But the Sun, Venus, and Mercury opposed it because the direction is contrary to the order of signs. Therefore, the place of Cancer was good because it extends from the 4th part to the 12th and serves middle age. However, all fortunate places, especially the 22nd part of Leo, serve ingresses and processes, but they could not, by themselves, accomplish a great thing because they lack the second condition and also because two places are underground from Leo.

The rest is only for me to answer your silent question, which is about the death of your son in your birth chart. I reply that the significator was Jupiter, and when it reached Mars in square with the Moon, it killed because it was not the same as me. For Jupiter is the helper of the ascendant, and it is the principal in that. And it's public due to the luminaries, not to me, because Mars opposes Jupiter, since they are in opposite houses of each other, but not to the ascendant, to which it is not friendly. And then the Moon, the lady of the place in the return of the year, was in opposition to Mars, who was in Capricorn, and she was in Cancer, and Jupiter was in Pisces. Therefore, from what has been said, it meant to me a return to the office of teaching, which I had abandoned for eight years, and his violent death.

In that year, Jupiter reached the beginning of Virgo, and it is known that the place of good fortune is at Par. 6 min. 57 sec. For there is an equality of Venus and Mercury there, and it is opposite to the Moon and in the trine of Jupiter's rays. This is for the reason of the art, as I said, and Venus and Mercury returned to the place of birth. I was called to Modena to the Most Illustrious Cardinal Morone on the feast of St. Lawrence because Jupiter and Venus were both in Virgo for the first time. I received the gift on the Kalends of September. The stars were arranged in this way at that time, so the place of profit from the art, as I said, is not the place of fortune but especially strong in the significators of the art and the help of the luminary of the time. For it is the place of Mercury and under the trine of the Moon.

Therefore, there was a revolution in which there were ingresses, processes, and directions, as you can see, for the success was not to be despised, especially for honor. Therefore, it should be noted that the place of progress was the same as the place of direction. I did not add fortunate or unfortunate places because they do not change; you have them in the previous figure. Therefore, twenty-two principal places are to be observed, of which four are angles. However, the number of principal places in this figure is eleven, and in others, it may be greater or lesser. The beginning of honor and profit came from the directions that reached the fortunate place, from the division of the ninth house, which signifies priests, and the sextile of Jupiter to the Moon, and the square of the Sun, along with their return by progression to the same places, as I said. And since the midheaven came to the place of direction by progression, it assisted this. And Venus and Mercury, who returned to the place of birth, also contribute to this because they aspect the place of good fortune by trine.

Afterward, I looked at the Moon, which had reached the place of Mars by progression and direction, signifying violent death for the same reason and cause. But jumping out of a moving carriage, I broke the ring finger of my right hand and seriously injured the middle and ear fingers to the extent that they cannot be extended, and the whole arm could not be bent for a year without pain, and it remained weaker forever. However, it did not kill because Mars presided over the place of the Moon, and they were in agreement, and the benefics dominated greatly, especially Venus, the ruler of the horoscope. From this, it is clear that whether the significator is directed towards the promissor or the opposite way, the place of the significator remains. For example, the twelfth part of Pisces, but not the twelfth part of Gemini, because I would not have escaped if the change had been made or the place of Gemini had remained. Therefore, the promissor is directed towards the significator through the ascensions of signs, not signs.

After this, I examined the charts of the following years, and I found nothing noteworthy except in the year 1569. However, since we are currently in the beginning of 1568, I added the chart for this year, namely 1567, and the one for the year following 1569. There is nothing significantly new after 1569, even though I am not so old. Therefore, the return of the current chart is as follows: I found the Moon's ingress close to the place of Saturn, both in the nativity and in the direction, still close to Mars. I also found the Moon's progression near the ingress of Saturn, and Saturn squares the Moon by a ray. These aspects signify sorrow, long-lasting illness, and a corrupt disposition. However, even though it is the month of February, I have not experienced anything like this, except for my grandson's injury.

In the year 1568, at its beginning, with this chart, I find nothing new. Saturn's arrival at the place of the Sun does not have a significant impact, partly because the place of the Sun is not primary, and partly because Saturn is strong in its dignity, being a benefic planet. The direction of the Moon is much more harmful, even though it is in the same place as Saturn in the nativity. However, since it is in the seventh place and among malefic bodies, this time is moderately exposed to a thousand dangers and inconveniences, but less so than in the following years, thanks to Jupiter in the ascendant. It's important to note that the direction lasts for a long time, and meanwhile, progressions and ingresses are expected every year, month, day, hour, moment. It is difficult to avoid falling into the trap. Still, at that precise point, it would be most effective if something were to align, as whatever can be expected will follow. Indeed, they trusted so much in this refined direction that it is openly known that Paris Ceresarius was content with it. J. Maria Ferrariensis even determined the death of Count James Picinini by his progressions to the hour. However, this can't be done by direction alone. Nevertheless, I suffered from gout and sadness in that year.

Regarding these matters, note that in events, the first place belongs to the promissor, who has been configured to the significator according to the nature of the significator. For example, a trine is helpful, an opposition is harmful, as in my case with Mars and the Moon in accidents. It should be noted that even though the Moon's rays occupy twelve degrees, Saturn is not considered configured to the Moon, nor is the Moon under the rays of Saturn because Saturn's light does not extend beyond ten degrees. However, the Moon is considered configured to Saturn, and Saturn is considered under the rays of the Moon. Therefore, this configuration can exist in one direction and not the other, which is significant. But even if the promissor is configured to harm, an opposition has more power than a square or conjunction, which are nearly equal. In helping, the conjunction and trine have more influence than the sextile. The luminaries are almost equal in influence when configured, but the body (physical conjunction) and trine are more influential than the ray (aspect). However, the Sun's body obstructs other planets, but it strengthens the influence of the places. Benefic planets help more when they are elevated in the world, especially in the angles and in the apex of their small circles. When they move rapidly and are close to the Sun, they benefit more. Conversely, they are less beneficial when they retrograde and are superior to the Sun in opposition. When they are near the apogees of their orbits, which you can see on the side here, they are less beneficial.

Saturn, however, is more harmful to life and honor, while Mars affects wealth and enmities. Jupiter, on the other hand, favors both wealth and honor. Venus is related to life and pleasure, as well as the procreation of children. Saturn is most harmful in this regard. Mars is more harmful than Saturn. Jupiter is more beneficial than Venus. Additionally, in any case where a detriment is significant, it must be in one of three simple ways. In all cases, the detriment must be potent, and the significator should have no power in the promissors' place. First, it can be a malefic planet. Second, it can be a planet in its domicile or exaltation, but it has a hostile aspect by a ray either by itself or through the ascension at the equinox. For when it arrives at other hostile rays by direction, either by equal aspect or by its own body, it destroys, as if it goes from opposition to square or from square to opposition or if its body reaches the other planet. The third way is when the planet in detriment is the natural ruler of the opposite place to the significator or the square place. In this case, it must conflict in both respects, such as Cancer from Aries or Gemini from Virgo.

In helping, they are most effective in other cases. For hindering, the opposite nature should be considered, as is the case with the Sun and Saturn, the Moon and Mars, and Venus and Mercury. When Venus is very dry and Mercury is in a very low position, with both being temperate, Jupiter, being temperate with all, opposes none. You will recognize this when the planets are feminine or most central. Hence, four modes emerge from the combination of these.

However, if two of the three simple modes coincide in one year, even a benefic planet will become malefic. For example, if the Sun is at the beginning of Virgo and Jupiter is at the beginning of Pisces, then, through progressions, the place of the Sun turns toward the beginning of Gemini. This will be the place of the Sun's destruction by the judges, with a capital penalty. However, the direction should be reversed. As in Ptolemy's example, if you take the beginning of Aries (in the eighth house) to the midheaven (the 18th part of Taurus) by the ascensions of the midheaven itself, it ascends at 45 degrees, not 51 degrees, as in the direct descent Ptolemy presents. Therefore, you should look for the circle of the promissor's position instead of the circle of the significator's position.

Furthermore, progression is more powerful than ingression, and conjunction with it is more effective than ingress alone. In progression, it is significant that the significator comes to the place of the promissor, i.e., where it also currently is, starting from the opposite direction. For example, if the Sun's direction reaches the tenth part of Capricorn in the subsequent return (where its rays are square to the Moon and trine to Jupiter), this differs from the case in life. A square in the significator's place destroys the significator, but in honor and wealth, it is not the same. When the progression reaches the place of the Sun (and it is primary due to the degree), as in the year 1562, Jupiter (in the fourth part of Capricorn) or the Moon (which is second due to its proximity to the Moon's rays, trines, and rulership), or Jupiter (in the third place but duplicated due to progression and bodily return to the same degree), implies what was primarily expected.

As you can see, the Sun and the Moon in the return aspect the place. This indicates a significant obstacle due to Saturn. However, as mentioned, Saturn is the lord of the place in progression, and because of this, it harms less. It is also entirely under the rays of the Sun. Therefore, whoever tries to hinder will be entirely at the mercy of the one who favors the matter. Because of this, in the present return, in the year 1569 (and as it will be my 69th year in the year 1570), everything expected from me in my entire remaining life will be completed. Therefore, I say that where returns and progressions have reached the Sun, Jupiter, or the Moon (which are the significators), if it had turned a little or not at all, they would have made little or no progress.

For example, you can see the Sun going to the Part of Fortune, reaching the place of Mars and the lesser malefic. Since they do not agree, and it's only progression, there will be some loss in the matter, but not significant that year. However, they can be very powerful. It is important to note that Mars hardly looks at the place to hinder or at least stir up troubles. When the condition is such that it presents itself willingly and approaches quietly, appearing more splendid than it is, the reality is far from calm, and perhaps useful. But to get back to the point, it is not strong when, as mentioned, the promissors have reached the significators in any way. For example, if Mars reaches Gemini and Jupiter reaches Taurus, it will be much less, almost nothing, when the fourth part of Capricorn reaches the place of Jupiter, Sun, or Moon by direction or progression. However, when I contemplated it, I saw that it is of the same type as the return of the year 1564, also because it is in the ninth house.

Regarding a Certain Fortuity

The revolution of the year 1553 had been predicted to be favorable. However, an unexpected event occurred in the figure described. At that time, he suffered from severe pain on the left side. The stomachache lasted from the fourth hour to the second hour of the night, from the fourth to the fourteenth hour. The pain eventually ceased, but the urge to urinate and defecate continued incessantly, similar to tenesmus. This persisted from the thirteenth hour to the twenty-second hour, during which I urinated over 80 ounces nearly a hundred times without relief.

The astrological cause of these symptoms was the opposition of the Moon to the Sun, both of which were in square to Saturn. Saturn was in the place of the Moon, just as the Moon was in the place of Mars by its rays. This alignment caused the pain. Later, as the Moon moved away from that position, it went to the place of Saturn's root and the opposition of Mars. The square of unfortunate Jupiter (in Virgo) took effect, resulting in severe tenesmus.

These conditions arose from the ingress. However, in the progressions on that day, the Ascendant reached the beginning of Scorpio, and the Moon reached its opposition, where the rays of Mars squared it. This happened during the Ascendant's return for the year. Thus, regarding life, it was not very auspicious.

The causes of this illness were sevenfold:

1. The progression of the Ascendant to an unfavorable place.

2. The progression of the place of the Moon to the opposite of the Ascendant's progression, squared by Mars.

3. The opposition of the Moon to the place of Mars in the natal chart.

4. The square aspect between the Moon and Saturn, with Saturn in the Moon's natal place.

5. The Moon's movement to the place of Saturn's root.

6. The opposition of Mars there.

7. The square between unfortunate Jupiter and Mars and the Moon.

Thus, it happened as I both hoped and feared. On the 21st, at noon, when the Moon was near the place of the Moon in the natal chart, I felt very unwell. However, from sunset until the third hour of the night, it improved somewhat due to Venus's trine aspect. From the eighth hour of the night, when the Moon approached Mars and Jupiter, it worsened so much that, considering the symptoms, I despaired of my health. After falling asleep, at the 14th hour, I emerged from the illness when the Moon exited the sign of Gemini.

Lesser causes also converged. There was slight mental distress preceding the illness, walking after a meal, cold feet, the intake of oxymel sciliticum (which precipitated acidic phlegm to the affected area), and copious consumption of raw food and salt. Without these factors, I would have been ill but not as severely. Contributing to recovery were abstaining from food from the 19th hour of the 20th day to the third hour of the 21st night, and consuming good food. On the 21st day, I took 32 resins of larch, washed seven times with sweet white wine. On the 22nd day, I massaged my legs vigorously and applied deer tallow to both feet.

With Jupiter exiting the sign of Virgo and Mars exiting Sagittarius (signifying serenity), I regained my health on the 23rd day, with God's grace.

End of Cardano’s Geniture (the 8th in the book)

Encomium of Astrology

If there is any necessary art for human purposes, a useful discipline, a pleasant contemplation, or divine wisdom, astrology is certainly not only such but also the foremost among all other arts and sciences that partake of these praises. Indeed, it alone, even before all others, has taught us about the courses, dignities, and times of the stars, and from these, even the existence of the Gods themselves. Without deviating too far from religion, Moses himself, the founder of the Jewish law, who is older than anyone among the Greeks or Romans, established all the festive days based on the equinoxes and solstices. He divided them all by sevens so that they would imitate the number and order of the wandering planets. He observed the orbits and times of the heavens so diligently that, while other nations devoted themselves to the worship of the stars, he (which is more appropriate) gave authority to the stars by divine command.

The Greeks and Egyptians pursued the discipline of the stars more curiously, though not with greater veneration. Indeed, those who discovered or increased it were held as kings while living and revered as gods after their deaths so that they would be honored with all efforts and dignity.

To mention a few of them: was not Hermes Trismegistus the first among the Egyptians? Berosus among the Chaldeans? Orpheus, whose lyre is said to have been placed among the stars because it echoed the harmony of the world, divided into seven strings corresponding to the number of the wandering planets. Then Phaeton, for exploring the course of the Sun; Endymion, the Moon; Atlas, the stars and signs; and that Daedalus, they said, could fly. Icarus, who, not having mastered the discipline fully, is said to have fallen into the sea of ignorance. Thus Pasiphae, Phrixus, the son of Athamas, and Bellerophon, as well as Atreus and Thyestes, each having discovered something unique, appeared worthy of kingship and divinity among the ancients. Tiresias, celebrated as a prophet in antiquity, was also a distinguished astrologer. For this reason, it was said he changed his gender because he considered certain stars to be male and others female.

What else do we believe the expedition of the Argonauts in search of the Golden Fleece signified, except the contest of many kings in determining the moment of the equinox when the Sun enters Aries? Both ancient historians and sacred texts attest to the custom of kings competing with questions, and the victor paying golden rewards to the winner.

What do you think Homer and Virgil meant when they depicted the Gods quarreling or fighting everywhere—the former for the Greeks or Trojans, and the latter for Turnus and Aeneas? It is not because these stars favored one side while others favored the other. Hence the multitude of conflicts and councils of the Gods. For it is absurd to believe that the Gods, like humans, did these things. It is even more absurd to think that when they wrote these things, there was no meaning hidden beneath their words and that they fabricated a fable out of empty desire, like a chimera, with no use for all its parts, by such renowned poets.

Thus, when they said Venus favored Aeneas because he was the most handsome, and Juno favored Turnus—that is, fortune and the Moon—they meant nothing other than the genius or star ruling over each individual while it rises, under the veil of a fable.

The genius of the heroes they pursued through virtue and the nature of the wandering stars was similar to theirs. Apollo and Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, Mercury, Venus, and the Moon must be believed to have been kings who discovered the courses of these stars and their power. They celebrated Castor and Pollux, Arcturus, and Andromeda, attributing their names to the stars they discovered, and granting immortality to men through the stars.

In more recent times, all the emperors have observed the precepts of this art. Among them, Lycurgus, the most revered legislator of the Spartans, enacted laws stipulating that soldiers should not go to war before the full moon. Others observed it more for religious purposes, like the Romans. At that time, the Kalends marked the beginning of the signs when the Sun entered. The Athenians, the wisest among the Greeks, also observed it. Berosus, a Greek who was a companion of Plato in Heliopolis, dedicated a bronze statue with a golden tongue in the forum because of his truthful oracles.

I omit Thrasybulus, who was held in such great reverence by Tiberius that he did nothing without his approval—a keeper of secret matters and arcane knowledge, and the only one Tiberius obeyed, though he ruled over all other mortals. Neither can his father, Augustus, be said to have neglected or been ignorant of this, as he had his coin marked with the sign of Capricorn, under which he knew himself to have been born so auspiciously.

Though I could recount greater things about others as well, it is necessary to hasten to their conclusion, in which no end can be found. Only this should be noted: when the Jews first, then the Ethiopians, later the Egyptians, who even abstained from observing the stars by animals (for they worshipped not the animals themselves, as the common belief held, but the stars under their form), and then the Africans, Babylonians, and Phoenicians, followed by the Greeks and Italians (for even Saturn ruled in Italy and found his observers there, even among kings and nearly divine men)—what else can be considered but that this art is some kind of gift from the gods, and a special one granted to mortals?

Truly, while they exalted past events, they left present matters to the kings, and future ones to the gods. But they did not want mortals to be deprived of this honor, and they took care that we also become participants in the benefits of this art. Therefore, I consider those truly wise who have been taught this discipline. About them, Sophocles may say, "Happy is he who knows your future." For how can they not love those whom they have endowed with such a divine gift? How can they truly be called wise who have received nothing divine from God?

Since this is the nectar and ambrosia of the gods, why should not those who have tasted even this kind of drink or food also be justifiably called the happiest? Therefore, astrology must surpass all other disciplines both in pleasure and dignity. Who doubts that it will also be more useful, since it can predict whether future events will be prosperous and one can prepare for adversity or bear it more equitably? For whatever one foresees for a long time, one will bear it more gently, even if one cannot diminish it.

The knowledge of future events, being necessary and containing both pleasure and usefulness to such an extent that no one can achieve it even in thought, must necessarily be present. Therefore, what is attributed to Ptolemy, I think, justly applies to anyone who is a devotee of this art. Indeed, he will say to himself:

"But mortal and fleeting though I am, whenever I look up to the densely populated constellations of the stars, I shall no longer touch the earth with my feet. Instead, with my whole being, I shall ascend to the immortal, celestial abode."

THE END

A Translation of Cardano’s Dialectica

Since we see that there is one principle of all things that exist and that we imagine, like God and unity, it follows that the same applies to those things which correspond to what exists and what we claim to know. This, however, pertains to Dialectics: to know whether what is said follows from what has been said, contradicts it, or does not. For it is the same art to know what is not from art, as it is to know what is. Whatever is accepted, either serves as a principle, is known from the senses, is derived from other things, or is invented in each discipline. Therefore, it is necessary to know the truth of these matters from their own sources, generally through Dialectics. For example, that a human being is an animal because they perceive, belongs to Philosophy; that it belongs to a certain genus, to Dialectics. However, while our nature is finite in actuality, it is infinite in potential. Therefore, it is consistent with the potential of our soul, but not with its actuality. But if the infinite must be contained in a few things, it must be through potential, not actuality. Hence, those who attempted to explain each individual matter, besides greatly expanding the work itself, necessarily omitted the infinite and did not provide a complete doctrine, making it more difficult. Since it was not easy to perceive why they embraced these matters more than others and introduced an illusion of error by omitting certain things while deriving others, it was falsely believed that these did not agree with them. Therefore, the first parts of this task are to understand what follows from what, what contradicts it, and what does not. In the investigation of questions, there is a multifaceted discovery of means. Afterward, there is practice with false assumptions: a unique aspect. From these, the treatment of disciplines and knowledge of what has been treated. Then, the discovery of necessary things in the parts of the subject. Finally, interpretation by others of what has been discovered. Ultimately, there is amplification, leading to an extemporaneous method of presentation. However, it is fitting to receive these things from the authors whom we observe to have excelled most in such matters. The first of these authors is Aristotle, followed by Hippocrates, Galen, Euclid, and Ptolemy. Aristotle’s formula, while not particularly useful for invention, is extremely general and necessary for all others. There are five types of invention: perfect, which results in a syllogism; invention, which arises from things perceived by the senses; evident, which emerges from the reasoning of a proposed argument as it dissects or transforms; rational, which takes various forms through twisting, reflecting, and dividing the parts of the subject; and imperfect, when a syllogism is not completed.

However, since all these things arise from sentences, and sentences consist of words, let us first discuss the words themselves. There are two essential parts of a sentence: the noun and the verb. Prepositions and adverbs indicate manner but not substance. Now, there are two types of sentences: perfect and imperfect. A perfect sentence consists of three parts: the subject (about which something is said), the verb, and the complement (what is said about the subject). For example, ‘man is an animal’—‘man’ is the subject, ‘is’ is the verb, and ‘an animal’ is the complement. The verb can be either substantive (such as ‘to be’: am, are, is) or adjectival (such as ‘to teach’: resolves to a substantive verb, as in ‘man has whiteness,’ meaning ‘man is white’). An imperfect sentence lacks what is said, such as ‘man is’ and is equivalent to ‘man exists.’

Nouns have various modes of signification: some are general, some are common, and others are specific according to their meaning. Homonyms refer to things that have no commonality but are signified by the same word (e.g., ‘dog’). Synonyms refer to things that are signified by the same concept (e.g., ‘human’). Paronyms refer to things that are not of the same nature or order but are signified by the same word (e.g., ‘health,’ which applies both to medicine and digestion, as cause and as a sign). Some things remain hidden, like ‘being,’ which is primarily about substance, but not ‘health,’ where the order is evident since they do not coincide in body, urine, and bath. Infinite terms arise when a negating adverb is prefixed to a word (e.g., ‘non-homo,’ meaning something other than a human).

There are six common nouns, all of which are paronyms: Being, One, Good, True, Something, Thing. The most general terms fall into ten categories: Substance, Quantity, Quality, Relation, Place, Time, Position, Action, Passion, and Possession. There are six modes of signifying: Genus, Species, Difference, Property, Accident, and the universal or any particular thing.

From these sentences, we can discern three kinds of differences: modes of signification, comparison to the things signified, and the things signified themselves. There are two species of modes of signification: one that affirms or negates, where the mark of negation is introduced; the other is divided into proper and unusual modes. The four species of proper modes are as follows:

1. Universal: Every human is an animal.

2. Special: Some human is an animal.

3. Simple: Human is an animal.

4. Proper: Socrates is an animal.

The two species of unusual modes occur when something is predicated of another, such as ‘animal’ being predicated of ‘Socrates,’ or when a universal mark is added to what is said, as in ‘human is an animal’; this results in an incongruous sentence.

In terms of comparison to the things signified, there are two types of true and false differences: simple and evident. A statement is considered true if it signifies what is, and false if it signifies otherwise. Evident truth or falsity is directly perceived. Simple differences occur when something is either unknown or not entirely certain, as in whether the Phoenix exists.

The reasons for the things signified fall into two categories: fortuitous and necessary. Necessary matters are fourfold:

1. Absolute necessity: Whatever pertains to God, such as ‘God exists’ or ‘God is good.’

2. Natural necessity: For example, the movement of the heavens—both the existence of the heavens and their motion are necessary.

3. Conjunction necessity: When a triangle has three angles equal to two right angles, it is not necessary for a triangle to exist, but if it does, it must have this property. Even if the sides of such a triangle are equal, the angles above the base must be equal, based on the assumption.

4. Temporal necessity: Everything that is past or already present is necessary, such as ‘I was born.’

However, matters that are not necessarily so fall into the category of fortuitous occurrences.

Regarding negative sentences, those that have a negating adverb or noun placed before what is being said become general, such as ‘no human is a stone’ or ‘there is no human who is a stone.’ However, this mode is customary. If a simple or specific sentence precedes the verb, as in ‘a human is not a grammarian’ or ‘some human is not a grammarian,’ it is unusual. But if an infinite construction is placed before what is said, as in ‘a human is not a grammarian,’ it is preferable, as much as possible, to use clear language, given the difficulty arising from such matters.

Whenever common things are spoken of in relation to others, true and necessary sentences are formed by conjunction. For example, ‘a fly is good.’ It is evident that if this statement is necessary, then what negates it would be impossible or absurd. When the most general kinds are spoken of in the same category as inferiors, either in terms of differences or what is proper to them, or even what is the cause of itself, the sentence is necessary and self-evident. For instance, ‘a human is an animal.’ There are four modes:

1. First mode: ‘A human is rational.’

2. Second mode: ‘A human is inclined to laugh’ or ‘a black crow.’

3. Third mode: ‘The slain person is dead.’

4. Fourth mode: ‘Because he was slain, he is dead,’ and whoever is slain is dead. Therefore, it is necessary and universal that being slain implies being dead.

However, if something cannot be separated, it is entirely self-evident, like a property. But if it can be separated, it is not. Nevertheless, sentences of this kind are useful for human knowledge, such as ‘a crow is black.’ Human knowledge is rarely exact, especially concerning matters like both philosophies. They are also useful for disciplines like medicine and architecture, whose excellence is derived from achieving their intended purpose

However, those statements that are spoken of in different categories or under the same category but with contrary differences are impossible. For instance, ‘a human is an ass,’ ‘a human is whiteness,’ or ‘a human is sensation.’ Statements made through verbs, if false, are also absurd; if true, they are necessary. But when adjectival verbs are used to describe the most general categories, they are all fortuitous. The Greeks more precisely call them ἐνδιχόμενα (meaning ‘incongruous’). For example:

⦁ ‘A human is white’ (meaning ‘a human has whiteness’).

⦁ ‘A human is sitting’ (meaning ‘a human has the posture of sitting’).

However, if someone says ‘whiteness is sitting’ or ‘a human has substance,’ both combinations of adjectives are absurd and unfamiliar. When something inferior is spoken of in relation to something superior, such as ‘an animal is a human,’ it is true but lies between necessity and non-necessity because it is incongruous. Evident truth can be perceived either through the senses or by reason itself. A simple statement with a neuter term, even if it is necessarily false, is still evidently accepted or incredible. Whether evident or obscure, it does not significantly impact knowledge. In the actual world, there are both true and necessary matters as well as fortuitous ones. The human mind can invent falsehoods and absurdities, but nothing of that sort exists universally. Evident and obscure statements, or simple ones, originate from reality. There are two types of sentences: simple and compound. Compound sentences can be formed through conjunction, such as ‘a human is an animal’ and ‘a human is a body.’ They can also be formed through disjunction, as in ‘a human is an animal’ or ‘a human is a body.’ If a conjunction is used, both parts are considered true; if a disjunction is used, only one part is true, based on the condition that the latter follows from the former. For example, ‘if an ass flies, it has wings’ is true, while ‘if a human is an animal, a human is rational’ is false. Some truths are mistakenly believed to be false, such as ‘if a triangle has three angles equal to two right angles, the exterior angle is equal to the two opposite interior angles.

Some axioms are general, while others are specific. General axioms apply to anything, whether it exists or not, and neither of these applies to nothing. If something is the same as something else, and that which is the same to it was the same to something else, then it will be the same. For example, if ‘a’ is ‘b,’ then ‘b’ will be the same as ‘a.’ Specific axioms include:

1. Universal: The whole is greater than the part in quantities.

2. Numerical: Numbers proceed infinitely.

These axioms originate from natural phenomena and have a cause or origin. In this category, there are also definitions related to construction, as seen in parables.

It is undoubtedly true that truth arises from truth. However, why is it sometimes necessary for falsehood to follow from falsehood? Let me explain. If falsehood could arise from truth, then since truth exists, falsehood would necessarily exist. But we have stated that falsehood does not exist because it is a creation of the mind alone. And if it did exist, it would not be false but true. However, from falsehood, falsehood follows, as in the case of ‘if a human is an ass, then a human lacks reason.’ But from this, as seen, a disjunction follows: ‘a human either lacks reason or does not lack reason.’ Yet from these, a universal statement follows, for example: ‘if something is a rational animal or not a rational animal, it is necessarily an animal.’ This is because ‘animal’ encompasses both possibilities. And if it is an animal, this statement is true because it follows from ‘a human is rational,’ which is true. Therefore, from the initial statement ‘a human is an ass,’ it can follow that ‘a human is an animal,’ which is true.

These considerations can be approached in three ways. Either through conjunction (as in the nature of sentences, invention, arrangement, and conversion), through syllogism, or through contraries (either their own or those that follow). Sentences are thus classified into four categories. Special sentences are subordinated to general ones, while others are contradictory. General sentences are opposed to each other, and special sentences are contrary to each other.

Therefore, there are three types of evident consequences. First, based on arrangement: in contradictory statements, if one is true, the other is false; if one is false, the other is true. In ordered statements, if a universal statement is true, the specific one is true; and if the specific one is false, the general one is false. However, if the general statement is false, it does not necessarily mean that the specific one is false; nor does the truth of the specific statement necessarily imply the truth of the general one. In adversarial statements, if one is true, the rest are false; but if one is false, it does not necessarily mean that the others are true. In contrary statements, the same holds true in reverse. If one is false, the rest must be true; but if one is true, it does not necessarily mean that the others are false. The second type depends on conversion: a specific statement can be converted into another specific one, and a simple statement into another simple one. Suppose there is something ‘a’ that is the same as ‘b’; then there will be something ‘b’ that is the same as ‘a,’ because if ‘a’ is ‘b,’ then ‘b’ is ‘a.’ Therefore, from the third general axiom, ‘b’ will be the same as ‘a,’ and consequently, there will be something ‘b’ that is the same as something ‘a.’ If there is no ‘a,’ then there is no ‘b’; otherwise, from contradictory statements, there will be something ‘b’ that is the same as something ‘a.’ Thus, from the previous reasoning, it follows that ‘a’ is false, and ‘b’ is true. If every ‘a’ is ‘b,’ then there will be something ‘b’ that is the same as something ‘a.’ This holds because from ordered statements, if every ‘a’ is ‘b,’ then there will be something ‘a’ that is ‘b.’ In natural and mathematical contexts, the third mode of speaking holds true when referring to superlatives. For example, ‘acid phlegm is extremely cold,’ so it follows that all phlegm is extremely cold and acidic. And this is because superlatives follow from the third mode of speaking. Since superlatives pertain to the specific and individual, especially in natural and mathematical contexts, and because they arise from similarity to similarity, the proposition is evident. The third type arises from the nature of sentences, which can be either equivalent or from the whole to the part, or from the part to the whole, or from the quality itself. Equivalent sentences include both the subordinate and the general: ‘If a human exists, then an animal exists; therefore, every human is an animal.’ And if every human is an animal, then if a human exists, an animal exists. However, this is not understood in terms of causes. For example, if stars exist, then the sky exists; but this is not true. Specific equivalence corresponds to simple equivalence, and simple equivalence corresponds to special equivalence. And what is specific to someone, such as ‘Socrates is wise,’ implies that some human is wise. General equivalence applies to both the subject and the verb. For instance, ‘every human feels’ and ‘no human does not feel,’ and in statements like ‘no human is not an animal; every human is an animal.’ From the inherent quality, if what is assumed is true, then what follows is also true. For example, if a human exists, then an animal exists; therefore, a human exists. From the whole to the part in disjunction, and from the part to the whole in conjunction. Also, from the perfect to the imperfect, as in ‘a human is an animal; therefore, a human exists.’ And from the simple and specific, or from the specific to the general, especially in necessary arguments. For example, ‘this star shines; therefore, every star shines.’ However, this usage is rare in scientific contexts. There are four types of invention: for the universal, for the specific, for the cause, and for the effect.

Regarding the universal, it follows from the particulars contained under it. However, it is not permissible to assume individual cases, as they are infinite. Therefore, by adding a general principle, it transitions to the general statement. This is evident through a certain natural light and a certain axiom. For example, a triangle has three angles equal to two right angles because the exterior angle is equal to the two opposite interior angles. Therefore, since the general principle applies to all cases, every triangle will have three angles equal to two right angles. From this, we recognize our infinite nature, which comprehends infinity from a single potentiality.

Another easier method of inquiry is as follows: take a specific statement that contradicts a general one, demonstrate that it is false, and then conclude that the general proposition is true. For example, consider the statement ‘every triangle is of this kind.’ If it does not contradict, then there will be some triangle that is not of this kind. Let’s call this triangle ‘a.’ Now, I immediately provide a demonstration that shows that ‘a’ is indeed of this kind. Therefore, your contradictory statement was false, and the general proposition you made is true. This illustrates how cleverly, from this specific case, we can conclude that every triangle has three angles equal to two right angles. However, this reasoning is not as firm as in mathematics, where causes are clearly perceived. In natural matters, all statements of doubt contain some uncertainty and do not generate secure knowledge. But such knowledge can still be held with confidence, especially when supported by the observations and testimonies of the ancients over extended periods of time. However, this does not apply to mathematics. In the middle ground, as in astrology, there is a certain process. For instance, the motion of the Sun is measured relative to the motion of the Moon and its apogee. Although the measurement itself is not precise, errors are corrected over time due to the succession of events. The motion of these celestial bodies, however, remains somewhat elusive. Nevertheless, both natural phenomena and mathematical principles contribute to knowledge. As for demons, that’s another matter. Now it is enough for our soul to be seen as immortal in comparison to this art, especially since it extends infinitely, even to mathematical matters (though to a lesser extent). However, it does not apply to things that are constant by nature, because materiality impedes the comprehension of matter.

Regarding the specific, when we establish all the different species under the universal and desire that none of them be comprehended under it, then we can consider it in three ways. Either we consider each individual case, or we exclude one part along with the remaining members, or we consider the universal itself. For example, in the twenty-fourth proposition of Euclid’s first elements, when a line drawn from the vertex of an isosceles triangle falls on the base of the triangle with an equal angle, it follows that the same is true whether the line falls above, below, or on the base. However, when we consider the principal part alone, such as the heart, since the other parts are not, the animal does not die immediately when these are removed. This method seems most useful for matters that are not so firmly established. As for the universal itself, we can consider it from what is contained under it. For instance, in the thirty-fifth proposition of the third elements, when the general statement is demonstrated through the individual species of the division of two lines intersecting within a circle. Generally, specific and simple statements are of little use for demonstrations, whether the purpose is to demonstrate a universal proposition or a specific one. The cause discovered above the effect is the cause of an eclipse, which is the interposition of the Earth between the Sun and the Moon. When we recognize that the Earth intervenes, we also recognize that the Moon experiences an eclipse. The perfect method of demonstration consists of two statements containing three terms, which we call premises. However, it is not necessary for the conclusion to be true if one of the assumed premises is false. If one premise becomes probable, the conclusion is also probable, and this type of reasoning is called a πθανὸς (syllogism). If both premises are necessary, it is a αποδνξ (demonstration), which is particularly important. It can be derived from the most fundamental and well-known principles or from the best definition, or from the genus and equal difference

If we disregard the material of the statements, we are left with only συλογισμος (syllogism), for that is what we call the arrangement of three ordered statements. However, if the conclusion is not derived from the assumed premises, it is called Elenctic or Hypothetical. For example, consider the following: ‘If you are a human, you are an animal. But you are a human; therefore, you are an animal.’ This is a part of the first mode of reasoning based on evident truths.

Cornutus (also known as Chrysippus) arises when the same conclusion is deduced from both contradictory premises. For instance, in the seventh proposition of Euclid’s first Elements, whether lines intersect or do not intersect, it follows from either case that the part is greater than the whole.

Furthermore, there are eight genera of syllogisms and four differentiae. The first genus is the elenctic syllogism concerning substance, which can be either valid or corrupt. The concept of ‘good’ is divided into the simple hypothetical and the cornutus.

The direct form and the reflex form lead to absurdity. The direct form starts with a premise related to something (either non-existent or existing) and is called a syllogism, which can be either probable, necessary, or false. Its purpose is to practice refuting false assumptions.

Let us focus on the good and the simple first. The reasoning, formed from two statements, connects a major term in the first statement to a middle term. In the second statement, the same middle term is connected to a minor term, resulting in the major term being predicated of the minor term in the conclusion.

For this to hold correctly, four conditions are necessary:

1. At least one of the assumed premises must be general.

2. The other premise should also affirm the same, even if it need not be the same as the general premise.

3. Both premises must consist of substantive terms.

4. The subject and predicate in both premises must be in the nominative case.

Although these conditions suffice for drawing a conclusion, since truth can only be deduced necessarily and universally from truth, both premises must be true if we wish to consider the conclusion true.

However, here we are not concerned with the material but only with the form. Therefore, the fifth commonality is that the conclusion always follows the weaker statement from the premises. Specifically, the weaker statement is weaker than the general one and negates what it affirms. Consequently, if one of the preceding two statements is negative and one is specific, the conclusion itself will be a negative specific statement.

The sixth point is that greater confidence cannot exist in the conclusion than in the premises.

Therefore, for the conclusion to be probable, both premises must be probable or the better of the two probable premises, i.e., true. And if the conclusion must be true, both preceding statements that are asserted must be true or better than true, i.e., evident and necessary. If the conclusion must be evident, then both preceding statements must be evident or better, i.e., necessary. And if both are necessary, then both are necessary. This is solely based on the assumption, as nothing prevents the conclusion from being more evident than the premises for other reasons. However, the terms must not only be non-homonymous but also not paronymous. And the statements must not be disjointed.

Therefore, there are necessarily four figures (since it is common in all cases that the major term is predicated of the minor term in the conclusion):

1. In the first figure, the major term and the middle term are related to the minor term in the premises.

2. In the second figure, the minor term and the middle term are related to the major term.

3. In the third figure, the middle term is related to both the major and minor terms.

4. In the fourth figure, the middle term is related to both the major and minor terms.

Aristotle, when establishing the major term that is predicated of the middle term, restricts himself to only three figures, omitting the second figure and transferring its modes to the first figure. This is because he defines the major term based on the premises. On the other hand, Galen takes the major term more generally and firmly. He defines it as the minor term of which the conclusion speaks (so that this distinction between them is evident by name alone). It is established that from the major conclusion, the term that is predicated immediately leaps to the minor term.

The four figures are as follows:

1. First Figure: The middle term is subordinated to the major term and predicated of the minor term.

2. Second Figure: The middle term is subordinated to the minor term and predicated of the major term.

3. Third Figure: The middle term is predicated of both the major and minor terms.

4. Fourth Figure: The middle term is subordinated to both the major and minor terms.

The major proposition refers to the major term, while the minor proposition involves the minor term in some way. From this, it is clear that it does not matter which premise comes first. The importance lies not in the order of the premises but in the connection of what is stated in the conclusion to the middle term.

And remember that the middle term can never be removed from both extremes. Therefore, a term that is removed from both extremes in a syllogism based on true premises cannot be the middle term.

The first figure has its own characteristics: the major term, as I mentioned, is predicated of the middle term, and the middle term is predicated of the minor term. The major proposition cannot be particular. The third proposition cannot be negative. The fourth proposition can affirm a general statement.

For both the first and second figures, it is common that neither the major nor the minor term can be a particular negative. The first and third figures can conclude a negative general statement. However, the second figure, as I mentioned, has the minor term predicated of the middle term in the premises. In this figure, three types of propositions are concluded, a distinction unique to it. Specifically:

⦁ In the first figure, every genus can be concluded.

⦁ In the third figure, two types of negations can be concluded.

⦁ In the fourth figure, two types of particulars can be concluded.

Therefore, the second figure is like a combination of the third and fourth. The third figure’s characteristic is that the middle term can be predicated of both the major and minor terms, and the conclusion is always negative. The major term is always general in this figure. In the fourth figure, the middle term is subordinated to both the major and minor terms, and only a particular conclusion can be drawn, with the minor term always being affirmed.

If someone were to say, ‘Since the major and minor terms are not distinguished by what they say, how can I recognize the conclusion and figure from the premises?’ I respond that in the fourth figure, we can recognize it. Here’s why:

1. The proposition that affirms will be the minor term.

2. If the other proposition negates (since the major term is always predicated of the minor term in this figure), the term that is predicated of the middle term in the negating proposition will be the same as the one predicated in the conclusion.

However, if the second proposition affirms, you can establish whatever you want as the major term, and thus, two special propositions can be concluded. In the third figure, the major term is always general. If another proposition is specific about the middle term mentioned in the second proposition, the term subordinated to it in the first proposition will be the same. But if the second proposition itself is general, both terms subordinated to it can be concluded, and two general propositions that negate will result.

In the second and first figures (since they are interchangeable), if both propositions affirm universally, you can conclude whatever is stated about what is stated. This leads to the first figure. If the conclusion is about what is stated in relation to what is stated, it becomes a particular conclusion in the second figure. If one proposition is a general negation and the other proposition is a general affirmation, then in the negating proposition, if the middle term is subordinated, a syllogism can be formed in the first figure through a general negative conclusion. Alternatively, in the second figure, if the middle term is predicated of the remaining term in the negating proposition, only a particular negation can be concluded. The same applies if the second proposition that affirms is particular; it can only be concluded in the second figure because in the first figure, the minor term cannot be negated, nor can the major term be particular.

Therefore, the syllogism known as Frilesomorum opposes the first figure in two ways: due to the special major and the negative minor. If both propositions affirm, and one is general while the other is specific, similarly, if the middle term is subordinated in the general proposition, a syllogism can be formed in either the first or second figure, but the conclusions will be reversed.

In the first figure, there are four modes; in the second, five; in the third, four; and in the fourth, six. These are encapsulated in the following four mnemonic verses:

1. Barbara: Celarent Dary Ferio

2. Baralipion: Celantes Dabitis Fapesmo Frisesomorum

3. Caesare: Cumestres Festiuo Baroxo

4. Darapti: Felapion Disamis Datisi Broxardo Ferison

Within these four mnemonic verses, three orders of letters emerge:

1. The first order: A. E. I. O.

2. The second order: B. C. D. F.

3. The third order: S. P. M. X.

In each word, except for Fris­esomorum (where orum is abundant) and Baralip­ton, the first two vowels indicate the two premises, while the third vowel signifies the conclusion of the second order. Specifically:

⦁ A represents a general affirmative proposition.

⦁ E represents a general negative proposition.

⦁ I represents a specific affirmative proposition.

⦁ O represents a specific negative proposition.

Therefore, each word contains three vowels. In the other cases, the first two vowels indicate the two premises, and the third vowel signifies the conclusion of the second order. For instance, Fapesmo corresponds to Ferio, Baroxo, and Broxardo in the same order. Although all syllogisms conclude, only those conforming to the first figure are evident. Hence, it is necessary to reduce the others to those fifteen by valid deduction. Consequently, if they are necessarily deduced, and those to which they are deduced conclude, then even those that were deduced hold true.

The third figure reveals the method of deduction. In this context:

⦁ S signifies simple conversion, i.e., from a general negative to a general affirmative and from a specific affirmative to its counterpart.

⦁ P indicates the conversion of a general proposition to its contrary specific proposition, as previously explained in the order.

And similarly, a general negative proposition is simply converted, and from a general negative, a specific negative follows. Therefore, a general negative proposition is converted into a specific negative. The letter M signifies that the propositions should be transposed, so that either a major or a minor proposition can be derived from the conclusion. The letter X, on the other hand, indicates that we must accept the contradictory proposition to the conclusion, and with the remaining proposition, we conclude the contradictory to the assumed other proposition.

Let’s consider an example using the mnemonic word Baralipton. If we assume the same propositions, we conclude in Barbara that ‘every human is a body.’ But from this, ‘some human is a body’ follows, as previously stated. And from this, ‘some body is a human’ follows again. Therefore, Baralipton is considered through P (simple conversion) from Barbara to Baralipton. The premises are as follows:

1. All animals are bodies.

2. All humans are animals.

Therefore, ‘some body is a human’ can be concluded. Similarly, in Fapesmo, after the major premise, we take ‘all animals are bodies,’ and after the minor premise, we convert it to ‘no plant is an animal’ due to the letter S (simple conversion). Then, from the minor to the major, we immediately arrive at the same conclusion in Ferio, namely, ‘some body is not a plant.’ Thus, the intended conclusion follows from the assumed premises.

Some body is an animal. No animal is a plant. Every animal is a body. No plant is an animal, making it easier to understand this reduction, and the exposed matter is plain to see. Indeed, the premises precede the conclusion, and from them, the conclusion follows. In Baroxo, let's assume the opposing conclusion, that every body is a human, and it follows that the opposing conclusion is false. Therefore, the conclusion was not true, as we said. Similarly, in Broxardo, let's assume the opposing conclusion and demonstrate the opposing conclusion to be false. Thus, the assumption was not true.

Baroxo:

All humans are animals.

Some body is not an animal.

Therefore, some body is not a human.

All humans are animals.

Therefore, all bodies are animals.

Broxardo:

Some animal is not an ass.

All animals are bodies.

Therefore, some body is not an ass.

All animals are bodies.

Therefore, all bodies are asses.

For these deductions, the following two mnemonic verses are read. The letter S signifies simple conversion, while P indicates that the propositions should be transposed. The letter M denotes that the conclusion should be derived from the major premise, and X implies that the deduction is impossible. Among these figures, the first is the most renowned, especially because it aids in understanding, as Aristotle states, particularly in the first mode.

However, various fallacies can occur if one is not attentive. In hypothetical syllogisms, consider the following: ‘Every human or ass is an ass; Socrates is a human or ass; therefore, Socrates is an ass.’ Both premises are true since they are disjunctive, but they do not constitute a valid syllogism.

Similarly, in the simple syllogism Celarent, consider the following: ‘No ice is warmer than stone; every fire is warmer than ice; therefore, no fire is warmer than stone.’ The fourth condition is missing here. In the same vein, ‘no rope differs from an ass; every human differs from a rope; therefore, no human differs from an ass.’ The third condition is absent.

However, an infinite term does not invalidate a syllogism. For instance:

⦁ ‘Every human is an animal; no ass is a human; therefore, no ass is an animal.’ The conclusion follows, even though the minor premise is false.

⦁ Similarly, ‘every immortal being is alive; no intellect is an immortal being; therefore, no intellect is alive.’ This holds true if we consider the two senses of ‘alive.’ Specifically, something capable of understanding is not an intellect because it does not exist.

The third mode of demonstration involves reducing the contradictory proposition to absurdity. This can occur in four ways: by contradicting the premises, by demonstrating the contradictory, by assuming the contradictory, or by considering what follows from them. We have previously established that a simple demonstration of absurdity or falsehood is not always possible, as falsehood can necessarily follow from true premises. This applies even in the first mode of the first figure.

Indeed, this occurs in three ways: either because the truth is demonstrated, and the contradictory is false, or because we demonstrate that the false is false.

However, this does not apply to the present case. If we intend to prove that what is known to be false is true, we encounter a contradiction. The second mode is when the major premise is entirely false, but the minor premise is true. In both of the first two modes, a false conclusion follows. Specifically:

⦁ If ‘all A is B’ is entirely false, and ‘all C is A’ is true, then ‘no C is B’ is necessarily false.

⦁ If ‘no A is B’ is entirely false, and ‘all C is A’ is true, then ‘all C is B’ is necessarily false.

However, if the major premise is not entirely false, it does not necessarily follow in either direction. For example:

⦁ If ‘all animals are asses’ is true, and ‘Socrates is an animal’ is false, it does not necessarily follow that ‘Socrates is an ass.’

⦁ Similarly, if ‘all humans are animals’ is true, and ‘every body is a human’ is false, it does not necessarily follow that ‘every body is an animal.’

The third mode occurs when the major premise is true, and it can be converted either universally in Barbara, or Darii, where both are general affirmatives. Alternatively, it can be varied in any way, as long as it maintains the same subject. However, this mode also faces difficulties when the major premise is not entirely true. Therefore, the third mode demonstrates how to deduce the contradictory proposition.

The third mode is when the major premise is true, and so it can be converted generally in Barbara or Darij, where both premises are general, which affirm that something varies, and what is said varies, and when the minor premise is false, the conclusion will be false necessarily. For example, in the major premise, a, b, c, and the opposing parts d, e, f, and it is said of a, b, c, g, h, individually, but the opposing parts K, I, are taken from some of them, and it is assumed that the conclusion is false, then the conclusion will be false. Therefore, a, b, c, falsely, because C is not said of D, therefore, a, b, f, is said of m, but K, I, truly say D, therefore, K, I, truly say m, but g, h, oppose K, I, therefore, g, h, falsely say m, but g, h, say m, suppose that a, b, C, say D, then, according to the second axiom, g, h, are false, and the conclusion is false. And here is the method that geometers use to demonstrate a false conclusion.

For example, in the fourth book of Euclid's Elements, triangles are considered that have one angle equal to a right angle, and two equal sides containing the equal angles, and they have equal base angles above the base, and the bases themselves are equal. Even if the angle between the two equal sides is not equal to the opposite angle, the triangles will still have equal bases and angles above the base, but the triangle will not be equilateral. Therefore, if it is assumed that the triangle has two equal sides and three equal angles, it follows that the bases are equal and the angles above them are equal, but this is false. However, if more inequalities are assumed, it does not necessarily follow that the conclusion is false, because the rest is not necessarily equal. From two false premises, it is not necessary that the conclusion be either true or false, as in the case of "no animal is a plant" and "every animal is an animal," it follows that the conclusion is true and false.

If we want to demonstrate a falsehood, we must necessarily take one true proposition and another false proposition. From true premises, falsehood cannot be deduced. However, from two false premises, falsehood cannot necessarily be deduced, as I recently demonstrated. In such cases, if we consider the major premise as false, the syllogism must be in Barbara or Celarent, and the major premise must be entirely false, meaning that the contradictory is true. Conversely, if we establish the major premise as true, it must be in Barbara or Darii, because if we accept the contradictory in Celarent, both premises would be negations, and the syllogism would not conclude anything. Therefore, the minor premise must be false in the part where it is necessary for the major premise to be true. For example, if I say ‘every human is an animal,’ and ‘some plant is a human,’ the latter is false because plants lack sensibility, whereas humans are animals. The reason why the falsity is more evident in the conclusion than in the premises is clear: the conclusion cannot be more evident than the premises, as previously stated. Therefore, if we follow the given precepts and convert them, absurdity will be revealed. The axiom states that if many things are predicated of many things, and the whole containing the parts is predicated of the whole, and vice versa, or if the same thing is predicated of the same thing in reverse. For example, ‘rational’ is predicated of every human, and ‘irrational’ is predicated of everything that is not human. Similarly, in Euclid’s first elements: if a triangle has equal sides, it has equal angles, and if one side is smaller, the opposite angle will be smaller, and if one side is larger, the opposite angle will be larger. And every triangle has one side equal to another, either greater or smaller, and similarly, the angle is either equal or greater or smaller. Therefore, in every triangle, equal sides are opposite equal angles, and the larger side corresponds to the larger angle, while the smaller side corresponds to the smaller angle. Although this involves negation, as in Euclid’s sixth proposition, a line is drawn from a point on one side to the opposite angle, and that angle becomes part of the original triangle. Therefore, the smaller side is equal to the remaining part above the base, which was equal to the whole. However, it is proven by the fourth proportion that they must be equal. Thus, the contradiction is revealed from the previous argument. It is not surprising that absurdity can be detected based on a different principle. Furthermore, let us demonstrate why we find it easier to prove the absurdity of the opposite axiom than its necessity.

Another axiom is self-evident: whatever things are said to be the same are truly one with respect to the other. If something is predicated universally, it is also predicated of everything in that category. Similarly, if it is predicated particularly, it is also predicated of a part. Whatever is truly said in the same manner is indeed the same; otherwise, it would not be truly said. Therefore, if ‘rational’ is predicated of every human, and ‘irrational’ is predicated of every non-human animal, and suppose that ‘human’ is not predicated of every rational being, and let that which is not predicated be the ‘chimera,’ then the chimera is not human. Since it is an animal, it is not human. Therefore, no chimera is human. Consequently, if there exists some chimera, it is not human. Therefore, some non-human is rational, as the chimera was rational. Thus, some non-human is not irrational, according to the second principle. Therefore, ‘irrational’ is not predicated of every non-human animal, which is the contradictory. You now see the reason for the contradiction, but it is not yet clear why this is more readily desired than the correct conclusion. It will become clear if we demonstrate it correctly: every human is rational, and every non-human is irrational. Therefore, according to the second principle, no human is irrational, and no non-human is rational. If, therefore, no non-human is rational according to the first principle, every rational being is human, as previously stated. All things are contained equally under the term ‘animal.’ Similarly, if no non-human is irrational, every irrational being is not human, according to the same first principle.

Therefore, those things which can be demonstrated, by deducing to the absurdity with certain supposed axioms, can also be simply demonstrated, but in a longer way. Let it therefore be demonstrated in triangle A, B, C, that if side A, B, is equal to side A, C, and angle C is equal to angle B, and if greater [angle] is greater, and if lesser [angle] is lesser, I say that if angle C is equal to angle B, then side A, B, will be equal to side A, C, even if greater is greater and if lesser is lesser.

Let us propose equal and unequal at first. Therefore, if A, B is equal to A, C, C is equal to B, so if A, B is equal to A, C, C is not unequal to B, and therefore since B is unequal to C, A, B is not equal to A, C, therefore they are unequal.

Then with B proposed greater than C, we will say if A, C', is greater than A, B, then B is greater than C, therefore neither equal nor lesser. Therefore, since B is neither equal nor lesser than C, A, C is neither lesser nor equal to A, B, therefore it is greater. Therefore, if B is greater than C, A, C is greater than A, B, which was to be demonstrated.

But if negotiation is necessary and B and C are equal, as in the sixth of Euclid's first elements, it will not be allowed for unequal A, C, because from any point B is drawn, angle D, B, C, will be lesser than angle A, B, C, for this reason A, C, B, since if two angles B and C are equal and B, C is common, if B, A, could be equal to C, D, angles D, C, B, and D, B, C, would be equal, but they cannot be equal, therefore A, C, cannot be greater nor lesser than A, B, therefore it is equal to it. This, however, is evident from denying the consequent to the denying antecedent, which we will shortly demonstrate to lead to a perfect syllogism.

If we wish to deduce a syllogism to an impossibility, we must take the contradictory of the conclusion and a true premise to form a syllogism. From this, the contradictory of the false premise will follow. Now, we have already explained how Barbara and Celarent are demonstrated when the major premise is false and the minor premise is true. However, in Barbara and Darii, when the major premise is true and the minor premise is false, we will consider the minor premise. For example:

⦁ If ‘every B is C’ and ‘every A is B,’ then ‘every A is C.’ Suppose we take some A that is not C. Therefore, in Bocardo, some B is not C, opposing the major premise.

⦁ Similarly, if ‘some A is B’ is false, we take the contradictory of the conclusion, namely, ‘no A is C,’ which is true. We add the major premise, ‘every B is C,’ and conclude in Camestres that no A is B.

But from both contradictory premises of that syllogism which concludes, a syllogism is never necessarily made. From one alone it is not made, neither in the first nor in the third figure. Indeed, in the first figure, a particular conclusion will be made if it contradicts the major premise, and a negative one if the minor premise, but nothing is concluded in the same figure; but in the second, nothing prohibits it, as in the case of the Frisians. In the third, however, neither in it nor elsewhere, because either both premises will be negative, which do not make a syllogism anywhere, or both will affirm, which do not make a syllogism in that figure, but are not ordered in another; in others, it is possible. The imperfect way of proving is made by calling it an Enthymeme when one of the premises is suppressed. It is distinguished from the conclusion and the premise that is brought: whether the Major, Minor, General, Special premise is suppressed, which affirms or denies, and in which figure and manner: for the term in the premise which is not found in the conclusion is the middle term, which you will join to the other term which is in the conclusion, not in the premise, and you will have the other premise. The fourth mode is when by denying the consequence of that which is under condition, which it affirms, the negation of the antecedent follows. For example, if he were wise, he would be good, but he is not good, therefore he is not wise. And similarly, if he is not good, he is not wise, but he is wise, therefore he is also good. Let us demonstrate this. No good man is a human, for no human is good; every wise person is good; therefore, no wise person is a human; therefore, no human is wise. But what I said about every human, we have clearly shown should be understood about propositions, in which that about which it is spoken is something singular.

According to Aristotle, there are thirteen fallacies: seven in things and six in words. In things, there are accidental fallacies, such as ‘I differ from you; you are a doctor; therefore, I differ from a doctor.’ There are also simple and non-simple fallacies. For instance, ‘evil people know how to deceive; therefore, evil people are wise.’ Ignoratio Elenchi (ignorance of refutation) occurs when an argument misses the point, although it is often used to mean reproof. For example, Galen was a good expositor of epidemics but a poor expositor of aphorisms. Therefore, he was both good and bad.

The fallacy of consequent occurs when something that has happened has a cause. For instance, ‘the world was not made; therefore, the world has no beginning.’ The fallacy of petitio principii (begging the question) asserts that what moves itself is immortal. Thus, the soul, which moves itself, is immortal. The fallacy of causa non est causa (cause that is not a cause) arises when we admit a false premise and deny a true one. When multiple questions are asked simultaneously, ambiguity can occur. For example, ‘Is intellect derived from matter?’ Some say yes, while others say no.

In words, homonymy, accent, composition, division, ambiguity, and the meaning of the entire sentence play a role. For instance, ‘cooked meat’ can mean both ‘cooked flesh’ and ‘what is justly owed.’ Here are some notable examples:

⦁ Life consists through the soul; life cannot transition into death; therefore, Plato’s soul is not mortal.

⦁ Death is contrary to birth and life; therefore, birth and life are one. The mind is not life; hence, the mind does not originate.

⦁ Hentisberi’s famous paradox: ‘I say false.’ It dissolves as follows: ‘This is equivalent to saying false,’ when I say that I say false. However, the initial statement is false because nothing was said before it. Therefore, the entire sentence is true, even though its first part was false.

Suppose that quadrilaterals A, B, C, D, and A, E, F, G are connected, and they are similar around the same diameter. If lines equidistant from each other are drawn across the diameters, the quadrilaterals will also be similar. From this, we infer that the similar quadrilaterals are similar in two ways. However, from these two assumptions, although it seems to follow, it does not necessarily follow. Therefore, the fallacy lies in assuming that lines F, C, and F, G, equidistant from each other, form quadrilaterals called similar, but it is not clear whether E, G, is equidistant from B, D. Similarly, if diameters B, D, and E, G, are equidistant, and lines E, F, and G, F, are equidistant, it is not clear whether they intersect at line A, C. If lines F, G, are equidistant from C, D, and line F, E, is drawn, it is not clear whether it is equidistant from B, C. Therefore, there are three cases: similarity of quadrilaterals equidistant from the diameter, being around the same diameter, of which two can be easily demonstrated together, while the others are difficult to demonstrate together due to different assumptions. Thus, fallacies also occur in geometry. However, Aristotle denies this, as they do not occur through demonstration.

Regarding the invention of means, it is done through what is predicated of the subject itself and what adheres to it, either always, mostly, or solely.

With these considerations of positions and conflicting implications, which are necessary, let us add useful ones, as highly beneficial to those interrogated who are detained in chains. Let us propose, therefore, that I have killed a man one night: the judge opposes to me the contrary, namely, that on that night I was neither present nor did I kill a man, but he attempts to lead me to contradiction: for by that act, I fall under suspicion. Therefore, he proposes whether I had dinner at home that night, if I deny it, I must subsequently show how I returned home. If I confess, he asks how I knew that he was killed. I must deny that; since things are proposed as admitted and manifest, which begin to contradict my position, which I must defend. Then he asks why, if I didn't know, did I stand armed at the door of the house? perhaps that was ascertained from witnesses: I am accustomed to doing so: did you not hate him? although perhaps there might be found a reprehensible reason for hating, I nevertheless do not hate: reciting the name of a common friend. But where did you go from the door? I strayed a little from my path, I did not leave it: for I thought nothing useful could happen further along the way. Yet did they see you fleeing, some? Hearing a noise, I could only fear; therefore, at the very onset of the noise, I hastened home. In general, the more widely you can explain yourself, as long as you do not touch upon the limits of suspicion, or those things which you feel certain can be objected to you, the better. Persevere in the same manner under torture, and see that you withstand more against one witness than many: although what one alleges may be lighter than what can be proven by two, as long as you do not incur the danger of death. It is better to confess a part of the crime willingly with the hope of life security, than to risk everything by denying it and incurring the danger of death or prolonged torments. However, it is even better to evade the judge's questions by feigning ignorance or forgetfulness, than to undergo the danger openly by confessing or denying. Therefore, always tread the middle ground between what can be proven and what brings the risk of life. So that your position is not entirely safe, nor is it unable to be disproved by witnesses, but it is the middle ground between these, pressing witnesses or dangerous confession: even if it is necessary under this middle ground, which can be refuted by any single witness, to comprehend: not to avoid everything in positions, nor to concede anything that is suspicious. It is better to endure torture against one witness than to make the cause of life doubtful.

For instance, in a debate, if someone says, ‘I assume that you do not exist,’ I agree and respond. Then they ask, ‘Did you admit it?’ I reply, ‘By no means.’ So they conclude, ‘Therefore, you did not admit it?’ I neither affirm nor deny that. What do you say in response? I remain silent. Again, they ask, ‘Do you admit the assumption?’ I neither admit nor deny it. Nor do I respond. Why do you create such variations and distinctions in your responses? I hear no answers. Do you want to free yourself from the assumption? I am not bound by any assumption, just as someone who does not exist. But what are these variations, and where do they come from? They arise from your mind, as you consider what you would respond if there were nothing to answer for me, but you respond on behalf of someone who does not exist. You release yourself from the obligation, and I accept that I am free. In all these matters, especially when serious, be as concise as possible, avoid ambiguous words, homonyms, and multiple meanings. However, you still engage in ambiguous statements, allowing you to turn the sense in whichever direction you desire and deceive the vain hopes of the judge. These same principles apply in daily legal disputes, where the debate is not about the truth of things.

Regarding memory in debates, use syllables, letters, and a single principle. However, distinguish between inseparable accidents of the middle term and the cause of effects. We will present stronger arguments, but let us not appear to fail according to the strongest.

Thus far Aristotle and the common [teachings]. Now of celebrated authors, and of particular disciplines, and concerning the invention of the middle term, first of all of Hippocrates, and concerning medicine. However, it relies on four rules: The first proceeds from a singular effect to the cause, and from there establishes a general doctrine; for example, those who are well-nourished do not withstand sudden changes; they are dangerous. The second demonstrates simply from the cause being above the effect, and from there deduces from A to B the effect, what it is. For example, if mucus occurs in the hip, the hip dislocates, and limping occurs; therefore, if the hip dislocates, mucus occurs and limping unless it is treated. The third deduces several effects from a discovered cause, such as if the breasts become hard again, it does not abort, but pains occur in them, or in the eyes, or hips, or knees. The fourth, when what is said follows from what is said, and the opposite from the opposite, and those things about which they are said, contradict, they will contradict and those things which are said. Let there be contradiction from A to B, and from C to D, and let A and C be contradictory: I say B and D contradict. For if B is not A, it is not from the rule of imperfects: therefore, C is from the first axiom, therefore D is from the supposition. Therefore, if B is not D, B and D have been opposite, as supposed: therefore, B and D contradict. Moreover, the invention of the middle term by Hippocrates is triple in its constitution: of cognition and operation, and of cognition in comparison, that is, whether it is permissible to operate or not: for immediately concerning those about to die, we must do nothing unless it is necessary, and it is fitting to mitigate some diseases alone. Let us speak of operation as a simpler matter. Diseases arise from a change in nature, into a contrary condition. Therefore, first, since healing is a return to the natural state, it will be done by a contrary movement and quality, which nevertheless thrives. And since the disease arises from some cause, and that cause is usually similar, because like is generated from like, therefore, that cause is contrary to nature, since it is similar to the disease. And since healing occurs by removing the cause, it will therefore occur by the contrary of the cause, in itself. And because some cause arises from its opposite, such as heat from cooling, while the body does not breathe, and healing is contrary to the generation of the cause, therefore, when the cause is made from its opposite accidentally, it is dissolved by a similar accident, such as heat from a bath. Again, because healing is from nature, and nature is assisted by similars, therefore healing will occur by similars of nature.

We have therefore that healing always occurs by opposites in a general manner to the disease itself, that is, by removing the disease, such as by warming if it is coldness, and through opposites in themselves as causes, and through similar causes accidentally, and through similars of nature in themselves. The second rule is taken from similarity, for similar diseases, as they are similar, require the same remedies, and to the same disease again, similar remedies, and to similars, similars. The third, for contrary diseases, contrary remedies. The fourth rule: for moderate diseases, moderate remedies are suitable. The fifth, for complex diseases, diverse remedies, either together or alternately. Concerning the comparison of cognition to operation, prognostic signs arise, all of which are based on similarity and dissimilarity. The more remote they are from the natural state, the worse they indicate the disease and the cause. Diseases contrary to nature are more dangerous, which are more perilous in terms of danger, hence the cause, which is more principal in terms of healing and symptoms. And the fourth is the natural constitution. Therefore, the greater things beyond the natural, and the difference from the natural constitution, the more dangerous and difficult the condition; but greater things are spoken of in four ways: either because they are necessary for life, or because they are larger in essence, or in duration or quality of the condition, such as a wound, by exposure. Regarding the recognition from effects, such as the weakness of the disease; from causes, as it was in the sun, therefore pain is from heat; from signs, such as the grinding of teeth, conclusion. Signs, however, are known from coincidences, from congenital factors, from contraries, from similars, from order, from transposition, from the whole, from the part, from reasoning, from experiences known, and from concomitance. But I will explain one example from similarity and opposition. Infancy has full and small veins; adolescence separates and excretes; childhood has full veins because it is contiguous to infancy; not small, because it is contiguous to adolescence; it separates because it is contiguous to adolescence; it does not excrete because it is contiguous to infancy: therefore, diseases of extreme fullness with secretion, which is from agitated humors and overheated due to movement, not guided by nature, will be suitable for them. Hence, he considered diseases that could arise from this complication of causes, and he proposed those that experience confirmed.

Galen, however, was engaged in the invention of arts; the rest of what he boasts about demonstration is ridiculous. He did not even attain Hippocrates’ dialectic, let alone add anything to it. In the arts and disciplines, invention arises from the notion of the end. From there, we gradually proceed to things related to the end. The parts of the subject multiply, as beautifully exemplified by the definition of medicine. Similarly, in Euclid’s work, the end is proposed: the construction of five regular bodies. From there, we consider the necessary intermediate steps, which are many, and from those, we find further necessities, which are even more numerous. And still, there are other necessities related to these, which are also more numerous than the former. We do not yet reach the primary elements. Thus, nothing essential will be lacking in constructing the art, nor will anything superfluous be added to the end. According to our demonstration, all these parts are necessary for this purpose. Even if they are sufficient, they are contained under the subject, and no more or fewer parts are needed. The third point is to demonstrate what can be proven about these parts and that neither more nor fewer are relevant to the art. The fourth point is to apply this to all cases, ensuring that the attributes of each part of the subject are demonstrated as concisely as possible. This process involves four steps: resolution, collection, inquiry, and demonstration. There are seven types of demonstrations, with the first and most noble being through cause, where we simultaneously demonstrate the existence of a thing.

For example, when tomorrow we demonstrate the moon's eclipse due to the Earth's interposition between it and the Sun. But that famous principle of Aristotle, derived from the first true principles, with so many conditions of which Aristotle has adduced none, of which no example can be found among men. But even less among gods or demons who do not use demonstrations, but gods indeed know all things by simple intuition, demons while they illuminate. The second is from the effect above the cause. The third from the cause above the effect, so that we may show that cause. The fourth, as I said, is composed of these, in the order of nobility. The fifth, which leads to absurdity. The sixth, which is not through its own causes, but others' and eternal ones. An example of this is found in Archimedes when he demonstrates the Parabola by balancing. This invention comprehends causes of various kinds, as perfect causes, such as the fiery heat of blood blush, for it is the cause of blush to the instrument and operation. For example, if someone constructs and plays a lyre, it will be the perfect cause of sound. And fullness, like the heart, is the cause of blood heat, that is, of fervor and tepidity through the liver in which it is preserved: as in a source from which it flows. And since there cannot be more than two causes and one is said generally, the other, which is general in itself, is not the cause. Like all black humor is accompanied by fear, not all cold and dry humor is accompanied by fear; therefore, darkness, not moderation, is the cause of fear. And if there are some maximums, they can each exist without it, but when combined, they are not the cause in itself, such as the very driest bile and the very coldest phlegm can exist without fear, therefore coldness and dryness are not the cause of fear in themselves. The seventh is derived from the refutation of others' opinions. And then the demonstration is only against them. And all these differ in essence and force among themselves. But those demonstrations which are not deduced from principles but from demonstrated things, provided nothing else obstructs, are themselves perfect demonstrations. For they are immediately connected with them in context. Indeed, it is necessary to proceed in this way even to the most remote things from our senses.

However, an art should be divided into five parts, as in the case of medicine. Galen alone completed the methodical precepts. The first part is consultation with experts. The second part involves distinguishing between things, which we have perfected ourselves. The third part pertains to public teaching, which I have undertaken with many others. The exposition of the primary authors, which both Galen and we have completed, is not unworthy of discussion. Vitruvius also deserves mention. There is a specific method for executing precepts, which neither Galen nor we have touched upon. Others have written extensively on this practice.

Just as we must proceed from the end to the first principles during resolution, so in refuting an opponent, we proceed in reverse order, as if doing something else, until we catch them off guard while they are contemplating nothing of the sort. For example, if I want to prove that lacking virtue is the greatest unhappiness, I begin by resolving that the highest good of the soul is virtue, as it is intrinsic, just as bodily pleasure is intrinsic to the body. The soul’s intrinsic goods are superior to those of the body because the soul governs the body, like a charioteer controls a chariot and horses. The charioteer, however, is openly nobler. Therefore, having demonstrated this through three other arguments, we will show in reverse order that lacking virtue is the highest form of happiness. This is called a trap. Thus, the method for constructing books is established.

However, when it comes to distinguishing between those who are perfect and those who fall short, especially among the imperfect (who are often numerous), we must consider four methods in the disciplines: resolution, collection, inquiry, and demonstration. The first three apply to others. It significantly matters which parts are lacking. For instance, in historical treatises, the essential aspects are the causes and secrets. Therefore, we have only four significant histories: Xenophon’s ‘The Ascent of Cyrus,’ Sallust’s ‘The Catilinarian Conspiracy’ and ‘The Jugurthine War,’ and Philip of Argenton’s account of the deeds of King Louis XI of France. Caesar’s Commentaries, written under his command, do not contain secret proceedings, as they do not reek of tyranny. All those accounts merely involve violence, deceit, plunder, and corruption through bribes and money. Thus, by excluding them, history becomes empty and devoid. Other histories are lifeless as well. The celebrated works of Thucydides and Titus Livius are particularly sordid. Instead of these, you find fictitious speeches of leaders, designed to showcase their wit and eloquence rather than to understand the truth. The situation is similar with letters: we have none except Cicero’s correspondence with Atticus, which is sufficiently obscure and filled with Greek proverbs. Even the more complete ones, gloriously embellished with military exploits, become tedious after a while. Moreover, they are mutilated, despite being eagerly awaited for over two years. Yet, even in this state, they are worthy of being read. Especially when accompanied by the commentaries of Paulus Manutius.

From these, even the understanding of difficult authors, such as Hippocrates, Aristotle, Plotinus, Archimedes, and Apollonius. Firstly, we shall establish what they ought to teach before considering what they actually teach, if it has been organized. In all cases, we shall divide their statements into certain sections where the discussion revolves perpetually around the same topics. We shall also consider whether the narrative is entirely straightforward or interconnected, like a demonstration, and whether the necessary parts for the demonstration are transposed here and there as they seem fit. Finally, we shall take into account the methods of demonstration peculiar to them. It is helpful to have seen the explanations of others if there have been any, and also to compare the statements of the same author with one another. However, another method of teaching appears, which Aristotle used and evidently Theodore Gaza in his Greek Grammar, when we proceed from the universal to the particular. For just as we perceive the body before the senses, and this before the human, so too there is initially a confused understanding of everything before the specific and particular aspects and parts of the subject. Hence, there is that type of demonstration which proceeds from the universal to the particular. Above all, it is necessary to presuppose neither contradiction nor repetition nor to say anything trivial or absurd unless compelled by evident reason; neither casually nor dissenting from others unless a cause is subsequently provided, nor to render anything uncertain.

Hence arises the reason for interpreting even if it is necessary from a temporal perspective. However, let us take an example from Hippocrates, who is especially worthy of being read first because of the clarity and depth of his ideas. Therefore, we will explain his simple and universal sense. Then, we will distinguish each word, especially the more obscure ones, hastening to the sense in which they were proposed by the author, so as not to seem to be talking nonsense. Afterwards, we will seek the reason for the statement, which we will easily find since he has not put forth anything without it and without agreeing with experience; it will also readily present itself from the methods used by the author, extracted as in the case of Hippocrates, either from one of the four rules of demonstration or from the eleven methods of discovery. Once discovered, we will divide, compose, amplify, often except, rarely doubt, examine the matter through the four causes, apply what pertains to it or what can be deduced from it, compare opposites with opposites, or the same, as when we say, rare bodies are not affected by fatigue, they tolerate the consumption of meat, and if there are signs of weakness. In explaining the opinions of others, it will also be permissible to refute opinions that oppose their views. Finally, to translate it into practice. And lastly, to gather through the path of the conclusion.

We have often fulfilled this task not only correctly but also with no small admiration. From this, you can move on to elaborate discussions not only supported by the authority of a great man but also instructed by multiple and profound reasoning. By the familiarity with all these, we will also make considerable progress in the work itself, since it is their way to think rightly and handle work well.

The consideration of geometers, among whom Euclid and Archimedes excel in the invention of demonstration, while Apollonius revolves around about fourteen demonstrations: the quantities themselves generally, Lines, Angles, Surfaces, Spheres, the five uniform bodies, lines on the surface of a sphere, the surface of a sphere with its parts, Cylinder, Cone, the four sections of a cone, Conoidal bodies, and others. Elliptical lines and those of such kind. Concerning all these, four things are demonstrated, though not each about all: Equality, Greater or lesser, Proportion and Commensurability, or Asymmetry. The chief aspect of proportion is Continuity, Equality, Production, Composition, and Reflection. The most principal of all and in all is equality, which is found both in quantities and proportions. Greater and lesser are because of equality. But the nobler proportion is commensurability, whether equal or continuous, Commensurability, and Asymmetry. However, Asymmetry is considered by itself: nevertheless, it is opposed to commensurability; hence, it is necessary not to establish two kinds of genera. But Reflection is one species of equal proportion. Production and composition are referred to equality themselves. Equality is more known to all by reason, but greater or lesser by sensation. However, since it is necessary in all, as it has been said, for the premises to be better known than the conclusion, it is necessary in all perfect demonstrations to assume equality or commensurability. For proportion pertains rather to the parts of the subject than to its being an affection. By perfect demonstration, I mean one where certain things are demonstrated for their own sake alone, such as those concerning the Sphere and uniform bodies, while others are demonstrated for their own sake and for others', such as that the side opposite the right angle can contain only as much as the remaining sides taken together. And that the greater side is opposed to the greater angle. Some things are demonstrated solely on account of others, as in the twenty-fifth theorem of the fifth Elements. And generally, where nothing is assumed, neither equality nor commensurability, a demonstration of the sought-after result is not achieved for its own sake. Furthermore, demonstrations of the first order are accomplished in seven ways: either from equals to unequals, as in the sixteenth of the first Elements, or from unequals to unequals, as in the eighteenth, or from equals to equals, leading to a demonstration by reductio ad absurdum, as in the twenty-sixth, or from equals to equals by absolute demonstration, as in the thirty-second of the same, or from unequals to equals, as when it is demonstrated that the area of a circle is made from half the diameter to half the circumference, or when from unequals actually equal in power, as in the forty-seventh of the first Elements, or when from equals actually equal in power, as in the sixth of the Elements when we demonstrate that similar surfaces with equal bases are equal. There are other methods, differing in these three respects of absolute demonstration, unequal to equal, actuality and potentiality, but the ones I mentioned are the principal ones. Therefore, the ends of perfect demonstrations seem to lie in proving the equality of quantities or proportions or the proportions of cognitions themselves, which are certain kinds of equalities and commensurabilities. For from this arise the kinds of quantities, such as what Euclid demonstrates in the same are of the same kind. However, among commensurables, the most noble is equality, hence there are manyfold, as it contains a certain part, and from these the most well-known, such as one and a half and double rather than triple and sesquialter and sesquitertian. And the same in many parts.

But the more specific things sought after in Geometry, especially for useful inventions, are three kinds: Axioms, Modes, and Means. However, they are found in each subject according to the method of resolution deduced towards the principles of the problem. Examples of such can be found in abundance in Theon's Commentaries on Euclid. Therefore, the first is Axioms, which are primarily seven: superposition, which is a connection from the senses of equals; equal difference from equals, or both; mutual comparison leading to the same proportion, although this may be demonstrated, it still has the nature of a principle that is general. And mutual excess; and all these with their converses. And each has the nature of a mean as in propositions forty-one and forty-two of Euclid's first Elements. However, the nobler modes of argumentation, besides the axioms, are four: the commutation of proportions in four quantities, and it has eight species: conversal, permuted, conjoined, disjoined, equal, inverse, and the assumption of equality of the first, third, and second and fourth multiples. And the assumption of two, and two multiples to the first and second, if necessary, are greater, less, or equal, multiples of one and the other, those quantities will be equal. The commutation of proportions in six quantities, when one proportion is composed of the remaining two with its converse. Reduction of these proportions into two equals, and from six quantities into four with its converse, when two of them are equal; and the comparison is made in mutual excesses. Now I will present six examples: first, when the excess of the first to the second, as the third to the fourth, is equal, the first and fourth will be equal to the second and third. And again, when there are three quantities, the sum of any two is equal to the sum of the remaining, and the difference of each of them, joined with the difference of the remaining, makes the sum of all. Also, each of them, when joined with the difference of the remaining, is equal to the difference of the lesser two from the sum of the remaining. And if there are four quantities, the difference of the first and second, likewise the third and fourth, is equal to the sum of the first and third, and the second and fourth. And in the aggregate of the same, the differences of the first and second, likewise the third and fourth, are equal to the difference of the aggregates of the first and second, from the aggregate of the third and fourth.

I will present legitimate means, thirteen of equality and one of inequality, the first being taken from the general nature of quantities, which is common to the whole second book of Euclid's Elements, although he does not use it there but demonstrates it through drawn figures. The second is from its proper nature, like the other three following from the circumference, as in the eighth of Euclid's first Elements. For from the equality of all sides in a triangle, he demonstrates the equality of surfaces and angles. The third is from the figure, as when the proportion of sides is demonstrated from the equality of angles, as in the fourth of the sixth Elements. The fourth is when we demonstrate from the circumference and part of the figure, and I will present five examples. The first is when two sides, having two sides and the contained angles equal, as in the fourth of Euclid's first Elements. The second is when two angles are equal to two angles, and one side to one side, as in the twenty-sixth of the same. The third is when an angle is equal to an angle, and the sides containing them are mutual, as in the fifteenth of the sixth Elements. The fourth is when the angles are equal, and the sides containing them are in the same proportion, then the triangles will be similar, as in the sixth of the same. The fifth is when the ratio of the sum of the sides to the sum of the sides is proportionate to the product of three differences of each side from half the sum, namely, from each side to half the sum, then multiplied together to a similar product; for example, if one side is 13, 12, 5, and the other side becomes one side: 6, the remaining single sides squared, 113. And these are demonstrated by us in Geometric Elements.

The fifth is when the altitudes and bases are in mutual proportion. This, however, is demonstrated by us there, but it is evident that it includes, even if they are equal. Sixth, when from the origin of the figure itself, as Archimedes in Elicis. The seventh is from division, whether into similar or dissimilar, as in the forty-seventh of Euclid's first Elements. Eighth, when we argue from composition, then subtraction, as in the fifth of the same. Ninth, when from both, as in the second part of the thirtieth demonstration, fifth of his. Tenth from negotiation. For example, when I demonstrated the reflected proportion. Eleventh is Myrielecticum, and it has three modes. The first is when a quantity is divided, infinitely under a certain ratio, preserving a certain comparison of all to the aggregate, demonstrated by such division follows what we proposed concerning comparison. And this is the main way by which Archimedes demonstrates the quantity of the Parabola and the Sphere; the second mode is when any quantities are assumed in two orders under a certain proportion and compared with each other. And the third similarly with a certain excess or proportion demonstrated from there, it follows that the proposed comparison ratio exists. And Archimedes also uses these. The twelfth is when equal is superimposed on equal, but not the whole figure to the whole figure, as in our first. On the Elements over thirty-seventh of Euclid's first, when one side is superimposed on the other side, not one triangle on another triangle. In this kind are the new descriptions of circles and straight lines equidistant from the perpendicular: especially when their extremes are joined. The thirteenth is when similar or dissimilar figures are mixed, such as if two circles in a Sphere intersect in any way, and we argue from the common section, from the thirty-fifth of Euclid's third. Like in the invention of two means given by us from Archytas of Tarentum, very famous. However, the mean for demonstrating inequality is, for example, when quantities in a certain kind reach a certain maximum or minimum, although different as an end, it will be allowed to find an equal quantity to the proposed smaller one, and thus inequality will be demonstrated. And from this again, and other extremes, and thus the order will be demonstrated from posterior.

Let the example be the circle ABCD, and let AC and AD be equal or nearly equal to BC and BD, and let angle A be less than the semicircle ADC. I say that the squares of BC and BD are greater than the square of AC and AD because since angle A is greater than a right angle, the square of CD will be greater than the squares of AC and AD. Therefore, let it be as in surface E, and let line F be equal to the squares of AC and AD. Therefore, F is less than DC. Draw FC, and then in the portion from point D and drawn FC, the squares of FC and DS will be greater than the squares of BC and BD, and thus the order of inequality will be established. And it will be as if an elegant aria: and the demonstration similar to a Chrysippean syllogism.

The conjectural medium is when all examples seem to approach a certain reason: And although it does not conclude that reason to be observed, since it is a sign of necessity, it will be the way to demonstration. These, therefore, are examples and methods, since there are many, especially those derived from general rules. For example, in the horned syllogism, when we demonstrate that straight lines converging to a point from a portion of the circumference of a circle are greater than that portion. As in our elements. And we have found many ways of discovering, not demonstrating, when we have observed that many things happen by chance. And through this medium and the preceding one, I have chiefly obtained great skill; hence, even investigations into demonstrations. For there is nothing more useful for discovery than knowing that something can be found. And for demonstration, there is nothing more useful than already having found the thing. Many of these methods extend even to considerations of arithmetic. But also to other arts, especially when, as I said, we want to construct demonstrations from principles not proper to the art.

It must be known, however, that although Aristotle elevated almost all of mathematics to the rank of demonstrations, Geometry almost entirely traces its origin from proof by contradiction and has its foundation in these: for the fact that the angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles, which he always has on his lips, is demonstrated from the fact that in equidistant lines, alternate angles are equal. But this is demonstrated in proposition 29 of the first elements, which is proved from proposition 27. But this proceeds by refutation, and so does proposition 32. For it has been shown that there cannot be greater faith and authority in the conclusion than in the premises, which Aristotle himself admits. It is therefore clear that this proposition is demonstrated by refutation, which will manifestly appear if you wish to deduce and resolve the demonstration of proposition 32 down to its first principles. For you will encounter the fact that the exterior angle is equal to the opposite interior angle, which contradicts proposition 16 of the first elements by the same reasoning and proposition 47 of the first elements. According to the story, this comes from Pythagoras to proposition 41. It will come from this to proposition 34, from which to proposition 26, which is demonstrated by refutation, and thus to that proposition. By refutation, I mean the one that leads to absurdity, since by refuting the conclusion we return to the assumption from which we began.

However, there are some demonstrations that are intermediate between absolute proofs and refutation, such as if someone were to demonstrate instead of proposition 27 of the first elements, firstly that if a straight line falls on two parallel lines, the two angles on one side are equal to two right angles. For if they were smaller, they would converge on the same side; if larger, on the other side by proposition 13 of the first elements; therefore, necessarily, they are equal to two right angles on both sides. But Euclid preferred to deduce by contradiction rather than presuppose that the lines are parallel, which he had not yet proved.

From these, we also come to questions where it is proposed whether something is true, whether it can be demonstrated, and how. However, the same methods and reasoning seem to apply as in the discovery and transmission of arts. As an example, I decided to explain something that was proposed to me by Francesco Sambo from Ravenna, for it was worthy of admiration; after laboring in vain on it for two years, I expressed the entire thing in the fourth part of an hour, which is presented here. The question posed was as follows: I described a circle from E to D, and outside the circle I drew a line, EFG, in any way, from E, intersecting the circumference of the circle at C and F, and at D, and found that what is made from it in AB, when compared with what is made from GA in AD, is double what is made from FA in AC. Therefore, I will say, after it is not restrained from passing through C and is fixed, those rectangles will always be double what is made from FA in AC. Wherever F is placed, therefore, all the rectangles from FA in AC will be equal to each other, thus what is from FA in AC is equal to what is from it in AB; therefore, what is from it in AB is equal.

By the same reasoning, if HL is drawn, what is from HA in AB will be equal to what is from LA in AD, which, however, is greater than what is from GA in AD. Therefore, what is from HA in AB is greater than what is from GA in AD, and consequently also greater than what is from it in AB. Thus, HA is greater than EA, which is absurd. Again, if it is assumed that from F, passing through the center E, lines AG are also positioned externally, then it does not immediately follow that what is from EA in AB is equal to what is from GA in AD. However, it is correct that equal rectangles are formed on the same side of the line. For example, from the part if what is from GA in AD, when compared with what is from EA in AB, or FA in AC, is double the rectangle from the entire line passing through the center to the midpoint. Therefore, what is from FA in AC is equal to what is from EA in AB. However, this is false in the inclined HL, because where it is at a minimum, intercepted by a straight line and a circumference, it is even smaller within any interior part intercepted between it and the line passing through the center.

It remains to be understood when the line falls upon the external line at a perpendicular angle, as in the second figure. Therefore, since what is from EA in AB, compared to what is from GA in AD, or LA in AK, is double that from FA in AC, what is from LA in AK will be equal to what is from GA in AD. Thus, since LA, which is drawn as equal to EA, what is from EA in AB, or GA in AD, will be equal to what is from FA in AC.

Therefore, the truth of this, when the assigned problem is turned, is confirmed. However, it is possible to verify this truth by extending ED, the straight line: for from the 31st Elements, D will be a right angle, hence from the 4th of the 6th of the same, the ratio of FA to AD, like GA to AC, therefore through the 16th of the same, the proposition is evident. Therefore, you see by what certain art we have hunted down the truth of this inquiry, in which many would have wasted in vain or many years, since the inquiry was generally proposed, and claimed to have found the measure of truth, when it is only true in this case, as we have demonstrated. It is manifest, however, that the general problem is solved by this, that IK, in AK, is always half, EA in AB, and GA in AD.

As for Ptolemy's Dialectica, it consists of four rules. The first is that from two affirming sentences, it constructs a syllogism in the third figure. This Averroes, not understanding, condemns himself, committing the fallacy not of the cause as the cause. For Ptolemy demonstrates examples, that the motion of the Sun is to be preserved by supposing an eccentric orbit. With this reasoning, he demonstrates that no other reasoning can preserve this motion exactly, neither with other eccentric circles, nor small circles, nor homocentric circles, however many are taken. These have been explained by me in the Books on the Variety of Things and in the perfect work, and they are easily understood by any honorable mathematician. Therefore, it would have been better for Averroes to have said, "You do not preserve these motions exactly," especially since Ptolemy himself says that the motion of the Sun can be preserved by placing it in an eccentric circle with a small circle. As I said, this is not true except for significant differences, not for the entire course in each part exactly. Therefore, Ptolemy's rule stands, and it is demonstrative in this figure, that from two affirming sentences, the whole ratio of the parts of the motion agrees. The second rule is that all motions agree when joined with the motion of the Sun, as in the new great composition in those words. Therefore, if we resolve the time of restitution into days for each star, and multiply the multitude of inequalities by 360 degrees for each circle, we will have the motion of inequality. For in all stars where the Sun is faster, he always passes as many circles in the time of restitution of the star as there are revolutions of the star according to longitude, and restitutions of inequality simultaneously composed.

It is evident that these equalities are unequal, and therefore they constantly interchange, because the small circle is in the place of the eccentric, since the eccentric does not complete a full revolution. By these two rules, he accomplished a great composition, although this second rule is applied differently in the Moon and other inferior bodies. The third rule is called participation, by the force of which he constructed the most beautiful books of Music and Geography: for it takes the mean between extremes from principles, and connects it with the extremes by a known and simple proportion. In Music, it is employed through the sexagesimal system, extensively discussed by us in Arithmetic; in Geography, it accommodates the Spherical to the Plane, extending the center to thirty-four parts beyond the habitable zones, that is, twenty-five beyond the pole, as in the first figure, or to seventy-five and a half parts, and the third beyond the pole, but deduced by the same principle to seventy-four, as it stands apart from Thule by a hundred and one parts, as in the second figure. For when the mean is established between two extremes, whatever is taken from one is added to the other, so that there may be grace in both intervals. The fourth rule is called succession, used in the books of Judgments. For when he saw the whole sky concurring in all things produced in first, second, and third parts, and so on until he arrived at those which did not vary in effect. He used alternation, so that he first assigned one in the day, the second in the night, and vice versa; then, when he first gave a general force and had the rationale of the horoscope, he gave a special one, signifying about life and others; afterward, he assigned the third place to the lords of those principal things that signified the nature of the matter, as if it were about seats, whether they would be good or bad, foolish or wise, enemies among themselves or friends. He gave the fourth place to those who were elevated above those lords, who would declare the fortune and outcome of such significators and qualities, in all cases where the first was obstructed, transferring the government under the Sun to the second, but they are not so perfect and exact in that case; therefore, by these four rules, he constructed those most beautiful works, needing no other aids than common ones.

In other arts also, the same aid is provided, I mean in Mechanics, Architecture, and Painting, and others. When I sometimes desired to see naturally what was beyond nature, I said to myself: do things that are seen and heard in dreams truly feel, and are they not merely imagined? Since there is a great difference between imagining and the sense that differs only in this respect, that it is not true. However, what pertains to the effectiveness of feeling is not at all lessened, for when we imagine the greatest evils without fear, our soul is greatly affected, not however in a dream, but our soul is mostly affected. What then prevents us from seeing even awake in this way? Therefore, by removing the cause of this distinction through vigilance, I have so arranged it that I see great and wonderful things, and above belief, no less than it happens to those who are asleep. And I truly see for a long time, yet not what I wish, but what is offered by chance, especially in those matters where I am greatly involved with intent. But to hear anything in this manner has not yet happened to me. Thus, I have found many things in other arts, excellent secrets, from which I have also composed a book of Secrets. I would have found many more things far away if it were not for the fact that I do not know to whom I will discover them, for now I am already sixty years old. And no matter how profitable many things may be, it is not pleasing to have found them, let alone to seek other Tantalean fruits, which, having found them, would be of no use or pleasure to me, nor would I have anyone to whom I could gladly leave them. The only thing I took care to understand easily was the books of Hippocrates and other serious authors, especially because of the commentaries which I had set out to write on Hippocrates, as well as others.

Therefore, it is clear from this book that one may seek no fewer or less significant answers than from an excellent demon, as they say. But you may say that the responses brought forth by the Demon are not proper, for almost the same ones are provided here. For humans know demons from the senses, species, and general concurrence of effects, such as what happens at this time, place, condition, quality, age, temperature, habits, persecution by these, which cannot happen to anyone else, hence their fruitful knowledge. Thus, from this art, it will be permitted to descend to special substances and individual ones, as well as affections and events. Furthermore, knowledge of Geniuses is about them through the concourse of causes, like the effects of demons. But it is not foreign to the knowledge of God, as for any of these, but of the whole maker. In probable reasons, however, we will maintain the same order, so that what is most similar in form and nature is demonstrated. However, it is specific to have a multitude of arguments and conjectures. And we will proceed from granted or most probable things, whether they are heard by all or wise. Hence, we will also use their authority. But we will refute opposing arguments, either because they have been objected, or because we are confident that their credibility can be fully elevated. It would have been better to have omitted them otherwise; therefore, with perpetual speech without contradiction, we ought to use these in which it is entirely intended to persuade. Or if there are objections not yet known or less educated, or if time is not fully available or reasons are not so firm, they will seem to have a purer faith with them through simple speech and demonstrative arguments than through contradiction. Remember, however, the three hundred and six places of Aristotle in this genre.

However, we will call a conjecture responding when either it remains silent or responds with nothing relevant, or returns to the refuted, or admits incredibilities or contradictions to what it previously stated. But in such a case, as we said before, it is of little utility since it is not directed towards knowledge. For in this study, only to refute the respondent when what is said among those things that are truly said are the most plausible should be applied. An example of refutation, and where the demonstration of useful instruction appears. Let it be proposed to demonstrate that every good division should proceed into only two. You deny this, and let it be that A can be divided first into BCDE, and let B be the ratio of F, therefore, everything B is F, and everything F is B, therefore everything CDE is A, and nothing is contained under F, not F, therefore, what is contained under A is the common ratio CDE, therefore let it be called G: therefore G will be predicated of every CDE, and every CDE of G, therefore F and G are predicated of all BCDE, and that of F and G, while A is predicated of BCDE, and BCDE of the whole A, therefore FG and A are converted, by the fourth rule of Dialectics, demonstrated by Hippocrates above. Therefore A will be first divided into F and G, opposing ratios. And thus not only does the refutation appear, but also the demonstration of the thing itself, and also the method of invention. It saddens me, however, that some adults who claim to teach something great assert that both sides can be sustained, from which they also boast with such an absurd statement: when whatever time they spend on this endeavor will be completely wasted. For by no effort (if knowing so can be called knowing) would I teach you to know everything in a moment: for everything that is, is either such or not. Such a small gap separates mere ignorance from our knowledge.

End of various translations.